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The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus; /ˈtʃiːtə/) is a large cat of the subfamily Felinae that occurs in North, Southern and East Africa, and a few localities in Iran. It inhabits a variety of mostly arid habitats like dry forests, scrub forests, and savannahs. The species is IUCN Red Listed as Vulnerable, as it suffered a substantial decline in its historic range in the 20th century due to habitat loss, poaching for the illegal pet trade, and conflict with humans. By 2016, the global cheetah population has been estimated at approximately 7,100 individuals in the wild. Several African countries have taken steps to improve cheetah conservation measures.

The cheetah was formally described by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1775 and is the only extant member of the genusAcinonyx. Its yellowish tan or rufous to greyish white coat is uniformly covered with nearly 2,000 solid black spots. Its body is slender with a small rounded head, black tear-like streaks on the face, deep chest, long thin legs and long spotted tail. It reaches 70–90 cm (28–35 in) at the shoulder, and weighs 21–72 kg (46–159 lb).

The cheetah breeds throughout the year, and is an induced ovulator. Gestation lasts nearly three months, resulting in a litter of typically three to five, in rare cases up to eight cubs. They are weaned at the age of about six months. After siblings become independent from their mother, they usually stay together for some time. It is active mainly during the day, with hunting its major activity. It is a carnivore and preys mainly upon antelopes. It stalks its prey to within 100–300 m (330–980 ft), charge towards it and kill it by tripping it during the chase and biting its throat to suffocate it to death. Female cheetahs are solitary or live with their offspring in home ranges. Adult males are sociable despite their territoriality, forming groups called coalitions.

African cheetahs may achieve successful hunts only running up to a speed of 64 km/h (40 mph) while hunting due to their exceptional ability to accelerate; but are capable of accelerating up to 112 km/h (70 mph) on short distances of 100 m (330 ft). It is therefore the fastest land animal. Because of its prowess at hunting, the cheetah was tamed as early as the 16th century BC in Egypt to kill game at hunts. Cheetahs have been widely depicted in art, literature, advertising and animation.

• 2Taxonomy
• 4Genetics
• 5Characteristics
• 6Ecology and behaviour
  • 6.2Home ranges and territories
  • 6.4Speed and acceleration
• 7Distribution and habitat
• 9Conservation measures
• 10Interaction with human beings

Etymology

The vernacular name 'cheetah' is derived from cītā (Hindi: चीता), which in turn comes from the Sanskrit word citra (चित्रय) meaning 'variegated, adorned, painted”.^[2][3]

The generic nameAcinonyx is derived from the combination of two Greek words: ἁκινητος (akinitos) meaning 'unmoved, motionless', and ὄνυξ (onyx) meaning 'nail, hoof'.^[4][5] A rough translation of the word would be 'immobile nails', a reference to the cheetah's limited ability to retract its claws.^[6] The Latin word jubatus means 'having a mane or crest, crested'.^[7]

Taxonomy

Felis jubatus was the scientific name used by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1777 who based his description of the species on earlier descriptions by Comte de Buffon and Thomas Pennant.^[8]The generic name Acinonyx was proposed by Joshua Brookes in 1828.^[9]

Subspecies

In the 19th and 20th centuries, several cheetah specimens were described and proposed as subspecies. The following table is based on the classification of the species provided in Mammal Species of the World.^[10] It also reflects the classification used by IUCN Red List assessors and the revision by the Cat Classification Task Force:^[11]

Phylogeny

The cheetah's closest relatives are the cougar (Puma concolor) and the jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi).^[11] These three species together form the Puma lineage, one of the eight lineages of Felidae.^[30][32][33] The sister group of the Puma lineage is a clade of smaller Old World cats that includes the genera Felis, Otocolobus and Prionailurus.^[31]

Although the cheetah is an Old World cat, molecular evidence indicates that the three species of the Puma lineage evolved in North America two to three million years ago, where they possibly had a common ancestor during the Miocene.^[34] They possibly diverged from this ancestor 8.25 million years ago.^[32] The cheetah diverged from the puma and the jaguarundi around 6.7 million years ago.^[35] A genome study suggests that cheetahs experienced two genetic bottlenecks in their history, the first about 100,000 years ago and the second about 12,000 years ago, greatly lowering their genetic variability. These bottlenecks may have been associated with migrations across Asia and into Africa (with the current African population founded about 12,000 years ago), and/or with a depletion of prey species at the end of the Pleistocene.^[36]

Evolution

Cheetah fossils found in the lower beds of the Olduvai Gorge site in northern Tanzania date back to the Pleistocene.^[37] The extinct species of Acinonyx are older than the cheetah, with the oldest known from the late Pliocene; these fossils are about three million years old.^[38] These species include Acinonyx pardinensis (Pliocene epoch), notably larger than the modern cheetah, and A.intermedius (mid-Pleistocene period).^[39] While the range of A.intermedius stretched from Europe to China, Apardinensis spanned over Eurasia as well as eastern and southern Africa.^[38] A variety of larger cheetah believed to have existed in Europe fell to extinction around half a million years ago.^[40]

Extinct North American cats resembling the cheetah had historically been assigned to Felis, Puma or Acinonyx. However, a phylogenetic analysis in 1990 placed these species under the genus Miracinonyx.^[41]Miracinonyx exhibited a high degree of similarity with the cheetah. However, in 1998, a DNA analysis showed that Miracinonyx inexpectatus, M.studeri, and M.trumani (early to late Pleistocene epoch), found in North America,^[39] are more closely related to the cougar than modern cheetahs.^[31]

Genetics

The diploid number of chromosomes in the cheetah is 38, the same as in most other felids.^[24] A remarkable feature of the cheetah is its unusually low genetic variability in comparison to other felids. Consequently, individuals show considerable genetic similarity to one another,^[42][43][44] as illustrated by skin grafts, electrophoretic evidence and reproductive surveys.^[45] A prolonged period of inbreeding, following a genetic bottleneck during the last ice age, is believed to be the reason behind this anomaly.^[46] The consequences of such genetic uniformity might include a low sperm count, decreased sperm motility, deformed flagella, difficulty in captive breeding and susceptibility to disease.^[38][45]

King cheetah

The king cheetah is a variety of cheetah with a rare mutation for cream-coloured fur marked with large, blotchy spots and three dark, wide stripes extending from their neck to the tail.^[47] In 1926 Major A.Cooper wrote about an animal he had shot near modern-day Harare. Describing the animal, he noted its remarkable similarity to the cheetah, but the body of this individual was covered with fur as thick as that of a snow leopard and the spots merged to form stripes. He suggested that it could be a cross between a leopard and a cheetah. After further similar animals were discovered, it was established that they had non-retractable claws – a characteristic feature of the cheetah.^[48][49]

English zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock described it as a new species by the name of Acinonyx rex ('rex' being Latin for 'king', the name translated to 'king cheetah');^[49] However, he changed his position on its species status in 1939. English hunter-naturalist Abel Chapman considered it to be a colour morph of the spotted cheetah.^[50][51] Since 1927 the king cheetah has been reported five more times in the wild; an individual was photographed in 1975.^[52]

In May 1981 two spotted sisters gave birth at the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre (South Africa), and each litter contained one king cheetah. Each sister had mated with a wild male from the Transvaal region (where king cheetahs had been recorded). Further king cheetahs were later born at the Centre. They have been known to exist in Zimbabwe, Botswana and northern Transvaal. In 2012 the cause of this alternative coat pattern was found to be a mutation in the gene for transmembrane aminopeptidaseQ (Taqpep), the same gene responsible for the striped 'mackerel' versus blotchy 'classic' patterning seen in tabby cats.^[53] Hence, genetically the king cheetah is simply a variety of the common cheetah and not a separate species. This case is similar to that of the black panthers.^[47] The appearance is caused by reinforcement of a recessive allele. As a result, if two mating cheetahs carry the mutated allele, then a quarter of their offspring can be expected to be king cheetahs.^[33]

Characteristics

The cheetah has a yellowish tan or rufous to greyish white skin, that is covered with nearly 2,000 solid black spots. The underbelly is completely white. It has a slender body, deep chest, a small rounded head, black tear-like streaks on the face, long thin legs and a long spotted tail. The head-and-body length ranges from 112–150 cm (44–59 in). Adult cheetahs average 70–90 cm (28–35 in) at the shoulder, and weigh 21–72 kg (46–159 lb).^[54] Its lightly built, slender form is in sharp contrast with the robust build of the big cats.^[33][55] It is taller than the leopard, which stands nearly 55–70 cm (22–28 in) at the shoulder. The weight range of the cheetah overlaps with that of the leopard, which weighs 28–65 kg (62–143 lb). On the other hand, the cheetah is significantly shorter than the lion, whose average height is nearly 120 cm (47 in). Moreover, it is much lighter than the lion, among which females weigh 126 kg (278 lb) and the much heavier males weigh 186 kg (410 lb).^[54] Based on measurements, the smallest cheetahs have been reported from the Sahara, northeastern Africa and Iran.^[35] A sexually dimorphic species, males are generally larger than females.^[56]

The head is small and rounded.^[57] Saharan cheetah have narrow canine faces.^[35] Small, short, and rounded, the ears are marked by black patches on the back; the edges and base of the ears are tawny. The high-set eyes have round pupils.^[56][58] The whiskers, shorter and fewer in number than those of other felids, are fine and inconspicuous.^[59] The pronounced tear streaks are unique to the cheetah. These streaks originate from the corner of the eyes and run down the nose to the mouth. Their role is obscure – they may be serving as a shield for the eyes against the sun's glare, a helpful feature as the cheetah hunts mainly during the day; another purpose could be to define facial expressions.^[35]The spots measures 3.2–5.1 cm (1.3–2.0 in).^[60] Every cheetah has a unique pattern of spots on its coat; hence, this serves as a distinct identity for each individual.^[38][35][60] Cheetah fur is short and often coarse. Fluffy fur covers the chest and the ventral side.^[54] Several colour morphs of the cheetah have been identified, including melanistic and albino forms.^[61] Black cheetah have been observed in Kenya and Zambia. In 1877–1878, English zoologist Philip Sclater described two partially albino specimens from South Africa.^[33] A ticked (tabby) cheetah was photographed in Kenya in 2012.^[62] Juveniles are typically dark with long, loose, blue to grey hair.^[54] A short mane, about 8 centimetres (3.1 in) long, on the neck and the shoulders, is all that remains of the cape in adults.^[33] The exceptionally long and muscular tail measures 60–80 centimetres (24–31 in), and ends in a bushy white tuft.^[63] While the first two-thirds of the tail are covered in spots, the final part is marked with four to six dark rings or stripes.^[33][60] The arrangement of the terminal stripes of the tail differs among individuals, but the stripe patterns of siblings are very similar. In fact, the tail of an individual will typically resemble its siblings' to a greater extent than it resembles its mother's or any other individual's.^[33]

The cheetah is sometimes confused with the leopard, and can be distinguished by its small round spots in contrast to the leopard's rosettes^[64] in addition, the leopard lacks the tear streaks of the cheetah.^[65] The cougar possesses neither the tear streaks nor the spotted coat pattern of the cheetah.^[38] The serval has a form very similar to that of the cheetah but is significantly smaller. Moreover, it has a shorter tail and spots that fuse to form stripes on the back.^[66]

Anatomy

Being in the genus Acinonyx, the morphology of the cheetah differs notably from the big cats (genus Panthera).^[67] The face and the jaw are unusually shortened and the sagittal crest is poorly developed, possibly to reduce weight and enhance speed. In fact, the skull resembles that of the smaller cats. Another point of similarity to the small cats is the long and flexible spine, in contrast to the stiff and short one of other large felids.^[68] A 2001 study of felid morphology stated that the truncation of the development of the middle phalanx bone in the cheetah at a relatively younger age than other felids could be a major reason for the peculiar morphology of the cheetah.^[67] The cheetah appears to show convergent evolution with canids in morphology as well as behaviour. For example, the cheetah has a relatively long snout, long legs and deep chest, tough foot pads and blunt, semi-retractable claws; moreover, its hunting behaviour resembles that of canids.^[69] In the 2001 study, it was observed that the claws of cheetah have features intermediate between those of felids and the wolf.^[67] In the Puma lineage, the cheetah's skull morphology is similar to that of the puma – both have short, wide skulls – while that of the jaguarundi is different.^[70]

The cheetah has a total of 30 teeth; the dental formula is 3.1.3.13.1.2.1. The deciduous dentition is 3.1.23.1.2. The sharp, narrow cheek teeth help in tearing flesh, whereas the small and flat canine teeth bite the throat of the prey to suffocate it. Males have slightly bigger heads with wider incisors and longer mandibles than females.^[38] The muscles between the skull and jaw are short, and thus do not allow the cheetah to open its mouth as much as other cats.^[33]Digitigrade animals, the cheetah have tough foot pads that make it convenient to run on firm ground. The hind legs are longer than the forelegs. The relatively longer metacarpals, metatarsals (of the lower leg), radius, ulna, tibia, and fibula increase the length of each jump. The straightening of the flexible vertebral column also adds to the length.^[38]

Cheetahs have a high concentration of nerve cells, arranged in a band in the centre of the eyes. This arrangement, called a 'visual streak', significantly enhances the sharpness of the vision. Among the felids, the visual streak is most concentrated and efficient in the cheetah.^[68] The nasal passages are short and large; the smallness of the canines helps to accommodate the large nostrils.^[38] The cheetah is unable to roar due to the presence of a sharp-edged vocal fold within the larynx.^[38][71]

The paws of the cheetah are narrower than those of other felids.^[38] The slightly curved claws lack a protective sheath and are weakly retractable (semi-retractable).^[54][56] This is a major point of difference between the cheetah and the big cats, which have fully retractable claws, and a similarity to canids.^[68] Additionally, the claws of the cheetah are shorter as well as straighter than those of other cats.^[33] Absence of protection makes the claws blunt;^[35] however, the large and strongly curved dewclaw is remarkably sharp.^[72]

Ecology and behaviour

Cheetahs are diurnal (active mainly during the day),^[54] whereas leopards, tigers, and lions are nocturnal (active mainly at night);^[73][74][75] diurnality allows better observation and monitoring of the animal.^[45] Hunting is the major activity throughout the day; peaks are observed during dawn and dusk indicating crepuscular tendencies.^[35] Groups rest in grassy clearings after dusk, though males and juveniles often roam around at night. The cheetah is an alert animal; individuals often inspect their vicinity at observation points such as elevations. Even while resting, they take turns at keeping a lookout.^[33]

Social organisation

Apart from the lion, the cheetah is the only cat that is gregarious; however, female cheetahs tend to remain solitary.^[57] Pregnant and nursing females, a few adolescents, and males who have not joined any groups are typically solitary. Non-lactating females, their cubs, adolescent siblings, and several males will form their own groups. A loose association between individuals of the opposite sex can be observed during the breeding season.^[45] These social groups typically keep away from one another.^[56]

Adult males are typically gregarious despite their territoriality, and may group together for life and form 'coalitions'. These groups collectively defend their territories. In most cases, a coalition will comprise brothers born in the same litter who stayed together after weaning.^[76] However, if a cub is the only male in the litter, then two or three lone males may form a small group, or a lone male may join an existing group. Males in coalitions establish territories that ensure maximum access to females. Solitary males may or may not be territorial. Some males alternate between solitude and coalitions, whichever ensures encounters with a greater number of females.^[35] Although a coalition, due to its larger membership, demands a greater amount of resources than do the solitary males or their groups, the coalition has a greater chance of encountering and acquiring females for mating.^[45]

Females are not territorial, and live alone or with their offspring. Juveniles form mixed-sex groups after weaning, but most of the young females stay back with their mother, with whom they do not show any significant interaction. Males eventually mature and try to acquire territories.^[54][57]

Home ranges and territories

Males in coalitions establish territories in locations that ensure maximum access to females.^[35] Males exhibit marking behaviour – territories, termite mounds, trees, common tracks and junctions, and trees are marked by urine, faeces, and claw scratches.^[76] The sizes can be location specific. For example, territories range from 33 to 42 km² (13 to 16 sq mi) in the Serengeti, while in the Phinda Private Game Reserve, the size can be 57 to 161 km² (22 to 62 sq mi). Territorial solitary males establish considerably larger territories, as large as 777 km² (300 sq mi) in the Serengeti or 1,390 km² (540 sq mi) in central Namibia. A 1987 study of the social organisation in males showed that territoriality depends on the size and age of the males and the membership of the coalition. It concluded that solitary as well as grouped males have a nearly equal chance of coming across females, but the males in coalitions are notably healthier and have better chances of survival than their solitary counterparts.^[77] In the Serengeti, only 4% of the solitary males hold territories, while those who joined coalitions were far more successful. The average period for which territories are held is four months for singletons, seven-and-a-half months for pairs, and 22 months for trios.^[54]

Males exhibit pronounced marking behaviour – territories, termite mounds, trees, common tracks, and junctions are marked by urine, faeces, and claw scratches.^[76] Males marking their territory by urination stand less than a metre away from a tree or rock surface with the tail raised, pointing the penis either horizontally backward or 60° upward.^[45] Territorial clashes can take place between two coalitions, or coalitions and solitary males; fights, however, are rarely gruesome. Another major reason for fights is to acquire dominance in the breeding season. These can even involve cannibalism.^[35]

Unlike male and other felines, female cheetahs do not establish territories. Instead, they live in unguarded areas, known as 'home ranges'. Although home ranges often overlap, there is hardly any interaction between the females. Females are regular visitors to male territories.^[35] The size of a home range depends mainly on the availability of prey. The greater the density of prey animals in an area, the smaller the home range of a female cheetah there. In areas with nomadic prey animals (such as the Thomson's gazelle in the Serengeti and the springbok in the Kalahari Desert), the home ranges cover hundreds of square kilometres. In contrast, home ranges are merely 100–200 square kilometres (39–77 sq mi) large where sedentary prey, such as the impala in the Kruger National Park, is available.^[57]

Vocalisations

The cheetah is a vocal felid.^[78] A wide variety of cheetah vocalisations have been identified by several terms, but most of these lack a detailed acoustic description, which makes it difficult to assess reliably which term denotes which sound.^[79] The cheetah purrs when content, or greeting known individuals. A characteristic of purring is that it is realised on both egressive and ingressive airstreams.^[80][81] Other vocalisations identified include:^[82]

• Growling: Often accompanied by hissing and spitting, the cheetah growls to show its annoyance, or when faced with danger. A study showed that growls consist of numerous short pulses with a combined duration of up to five seconds.^[83]
• Moaning or yowling: This is an escalated version of growling and is often combined with it. It is typically displayed when the danger increases. A study found that yowls could last as long as two seconds.^[83]
• Agonistic vocalisations: this term denotes a combination of growls, moans, and hisses that is followed by spitting, a feature more conspicuous in cheetah than in other cats. In addition to spitting, the cheetah hits the ground with its front paws.^[80]
• Bleating: Similar to the meow of the domestic cat, the cheetah can bleat, and sometimes moan, when a larger predator deprives it of its prey.^[54]
• Chirping or stutter-barking: A cheetah chirps when excited (for instance, when gathered around a kill). This vocalisation can also be used at social meetings, during courtship, or in attempting to find another; the chirp of a mother searching for her cubs, which sounds more like the yelp of a dog than the chirp of a bird, can be heard up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away. A study estimated the chirp's total duration as 0.09 to 0.5 seconds.^[83]
• Churring: The purpose of this sound is similar to that of the chirp. It may resemble a growl. The cheetah's chirp is similar to the soft roar of the lion, and its churr as the latter's loud roar. The churr is staccato and has a shorter range than the chirp. A study showed that churrs comprise 3–15 separate pulses and last 0.1–1.3 seconds.^[83]
• Mother-cub vocalisations: Apart from chirping, mothers use some other sounds to interact with their cubs. A repeated ihn ihn is used to gather the cubs, while a prr prr is used to guide them on a journey. A low-pitched alarm call is used to warn the cubs to stand still in the presence of danger.^[54]
• Whirring: This sound is produced by cubs bickering over a kill; the pitch rises with the intensity of the quarrel, and ends on a harsh note.^[54]

Other methods

Scent plays a significant role in olfactory communication. Cheetahs often investigate urine-marked places (territories or common landmarks) for a long time by crouching on their forelegs and carefully smelling the place. Then the male will itself urinate there and sniff at its own scent before leaving. Other observing individuals will repeat the ritual. Females may also show marking behaviour but less prominently than the males. Females in oestrus will show maximum urine-marking, and her excrement can attract males from far off.^[54][56]

Social meetings are marked by mutual sniffing in oral and genital areas, grooming one another, rubbing the cheeks, and face-licking. Further physical contact has not been observed.^[54]

The tear streaks are a means of visual communication. The tear streaks combined with the black lips and the contrasting white fur give the face a striking appearance and form clear expressions when viewed from a close range. The ears and the face are obscure from a distance, and so are the expressions. On the other hand, the tail is quite conspicuous and is probably used by mothers to direct juveniles to follow them.^[54]

Display behaviour

Cheetahs engage in several displays during fights, hunting, or self-defence. Prior to a sprint, the cheetah will hold its head down, with aggression on its face, and approach the target in a stiff gait. The aggressive expression is maintained during the run. To defend itself or its prey, a cheetah will hold its body low to the ground, and produce a snarl with its mouth wide open, the eyes staring threateningly ahead and the ears folded backward. This may be accompanied by moans, hisses, and growls. In more severe cases, the ground is hit with the paws. Fights are characterised by biting, tearing out the fur and attempts at strangling on both sides.^[54][84]

Hunting and competitors

The cheetah is a carnivore that prefers medium-sized prey with a body mass ranging from 23 to 56 kg (51 to 123 lb). Blesbok, duiker, Grant's gazelle, impala, reedbuck, springbok, and Thomson's gazelle are some of the common targets of the cheetah. Other prey animals include the bat-eared fox, bushbuck, kudu, hartebeest, nyala, oribi, roan antelope, steenbok, sable antelope, and waterbuck; they prey less frequently on the African buffalo, gemsbok, giraffe, ostrich, warthog, wildebeest, and zebra.^{[33][35][85][86]} A study showed that a major proportion of the diet of Asiatic cheetahs consists of livestock; local species such as chinkara, desert hare, goitered gazelle, ibex, rodents, and wild sheep are also hunted.^[87] Generally, only groups of cheetahs will attempt to kill large animals such as hartebeest,^[35][54] although mothers with young cubs will attempt to secure a large prey all by themselves.^[45] There are no records of cheetah killing human beings.^[35][68] The diet of a cheetah depends on the area in which it lives. For example, on the East African plains, its preferred prey is the Thomson's gazelle, somewhat smaller than the cheetah. In contrast, in Kwa-Zulu Natal the preferred prey is the significantly larger nyala, males of which can weigh up to 130 kg (290 lb).^[68] They do, however, opt for young and adolescent targets, which make up about 50% of the cheetah diet despite constituting only a small portion of the prey population.^[33]

Cheetahs hunt primarily throughout the day, but geographical variations exist. For instance, cheetahs in the Sahara and the Masai Mara hunt after sunset to escape the high temperatures of the day. In the Serengeti they hunt when the lions and hyenas are inactive.^[33] A study in Nairobi National Park in Kenya showed that the success of the hunt depends on the species, age, sex, and habitat of the prey, and the size of the hunting herd or the efficiency of the hunting individual.^[88] Cheetahs hunt by vision rather than by scent. Prey is located from observation points or while roaming. Animals toward the edges of the herd are preferred. The cheetah will stalk their prey to within 100–300 m (330–980 ft); it will try to approach it as closely as possible while concealing itself in cover, sometimes even up to within 60 m (200 ft) of the prey. The cheetah will crouch and move slowly while stalking, occasionally becoming motionless.^[33] The chase usually lasts less than a minute; if the cheetah fails to make a kill quickly, it will give up. Cheetahs have an average hunting success rate of 40 to 50%.^[89][90]

Cheetahs kill their prey by tripping it during the chase; the cheetah can use its strong dewclaw to knock the prey off its balance. To kill medium- to large-sized prey, the cheetah bites the prey's throat to suffocate it. A bite on the back of the neck or the snout is enough to kill smaller prey.^[33] The prey is then taken to a shaded place; the cheetah, highly exhausted after the chase, rests beside the kill and pants heavily for nearly five to 55 minutes. Groups of cheetah devour the kill peacefully, though minor growling may be observed. Cheetahs not involved in hunting will immediately start eating.^[45] Cheetahs can consume large quantities of food. In a study at the Etosha National Park (Namibia), the cheetah consumed as much as 10 kilograms (22 lb) within two hours and stayed close to the remains for 11hours.^[91] Cheetahs move their heads from side to side so that the sharp carnassial teeth effectively tear the flesh, which can then be swallowed without chewing. They typically begin with the hindquarters, and then progress toward the abdomen and the spine. Rib bones are chewed on at the ends, and the limbs are not generally torn apart while eating.^[33]

The cheetah, especially mothers with young cubs, are highly vigilant; they need to remain on a lookout for large carnivores who might steal the prey or harm the cubs, and for any potential prey.^[33][92] In Africa, the cheetah surrenders its kill to sturdier carnivores such as lions, leopards, spotted and brown hyenas, and wild dogs.^[57] Cheetahs lose around 10 to 15% of their kills to other predators;^[33] the percentage was found to be as high as 50% in a 1986 study.^[89] Cheetahs have rarely been observed to feed on the kills of other carnivores; this may be due to vultures and spotted hyena adroitly capturing and consuming heavy carcasses within a short time.^[45][93]

In Central Asia, the cheetah competed with grey wolf, and to a lesser extent also with striped hyena, leopard and caracal.^[24][94][95]

Speed and acceleration

Adaptations

The cheetah's thin and light body makes it well-suited to short, explosive bursts of speed, rapid acceleration, and an ability to execute extreme changes in direction while moving at high speed. Research has indicated that the cheetah's athleticism is critical to the cat's predatory success rate.^[96] These adaptations account for much of the cheetah's ability to catch fast-moving prey.^[97][98]

The cheetah is the fastest land animal.^{[99][100][101][102][103][104]} It was called the 'felid version of the greyhound', as both have similar morphology and the ability to reach tremendous speeds in a shorter time than other mammals.^[54][63]

The large nasal passages ensure fast flow of sufficient air, and the enlarged heart and lungs allow the enrichment of blood with oxygen in a short time. This allows cheetahs to rapidly regain their stamina after a chase.^[38][33] During a typical chase, their respiratory rate increases from 60 to 150 breaths per minute.^[89] While running, in addition to having good traction due to their semi-retractable claws, cheetahs use their tail as a rudder-like means of steering that enables them to make sharp turns, necessary to outflank antelopes that often change direction to escape during a chase.^[33][57] The protracted claws increase grip over the ground, while foot pads make the sprint more convenient over tough ground. The tight binding of the tibia and the fibula restrict rotation about the lower leg, thus stabilising the animal throughout the sprint; the downside, however, is that this reduces climbing efficiency. The pendulum-like motion of the scapula increases the stride length and assists in shock absorption. The extension of the vertebral column can add as much as 76 cm (30 in) to the length of a stride.^[105][106] During more than half of the time of the sprint, the animal has all four limbs in the air; this also contributes to the stride length.^[107]

The cheetah runs no more than 500 m (1,640 ft) at the speed of 104 to 120 km/h (65 to 75 mph); it very rarely runs at this high speed as most chases are within 100 m (330 ft).^[108]

By 1973, cheetah sprinting distance was thought to be limited by the building up of excessive body heat.^[109] A biologging study with six free-living cheetahs in Namibia revealed that their elevated body temperature did not compromise their chasing prey. After successful hunts, they had a 0.6 to 0.8 °C higher body temperature than after unsuccessful chases.^[110]

Recorded values

In general, the speed of a hunting cheetah averages 64 km/h (40 mph) during a chase,^[54] interspersed with a few short bursts when the speed varies between 104 and 120 km/h (65 and 75 mph); the most reliable measurement of the typical speed during a short chase is 112 km/h (70 mph).^{[33][75][111][112]} However, this value of the maximum speed measured in 1957 is disputed. Measurements using solar-powered GPS collars in 367 hunts show a maximum speed of 93 km/h (58 mph) while hunting.^[113][114] The speeds attained by the cheetah may be only slightly greater than those achieved by the pronghorn 88.5 km/h (55.0 mph)^[115] and the springbok 88 km/h (55 mph).^[116] Yet the cheetah has a greater probability of succeeding in the chase due to its exceptional acceleration – it can attain a speed of 75 km/h (47 mph) in just two seconds.^[33] One stride or jump of a galloping cheetah averages 6.7 metres (22 ft).^[117] Similarly, the ability to change direction rapidly is pivotal in ensuring hunting success.^{[114][118][119]} Cheetahs typically walk at 3–4 kilometres per hour (1.9–2.5 mph).^[75]

Speed and acceleration values for the hunting cheetah may be different from those for the non-hunting because, while engaged in the chase, the cheetah is more likely to be twisting and turning and may be running through vegetation.^[114][113] In 2012 an 11-year-old cheetah from the Cincinnati Zoo named Sarah made a world record by running 100 m (330 ft) in 5.95 seconds over a set run, during which she ran a recorded maximum speed of 98 km/h (61 mph).^[117][120] A study of five wild cheetahs (three females, two males) during hunting reported a maximum speed of 93 km/h (58 mph), with an average of 48 to 56 km/h (30 to 35 mph). Speed can be increased by almost 10 km/h (6 mph) in a single stride. The average chase is 173 m (568 ft) and the maximum ranges from 407 to 559 m (1,335 to 1,834 ft).^[114]

Reproduction

Cheetahs breed throughout the year; they are induced ovulators. Females become sexually mature at 21 to 22 months of age.^[38] Females are polyoestrus – they have an oestrus ('heat') cycle every 12days (this can vary from 10to 20 days),^[121] each oestrus lasting one to three days. A female can give birth again after 17 to 20 months; however, on the loss of a whole litter mothers can mate again.^[56] Urine-marking in males becomes more pronounced when a female in their vicinity comes into oestrus. Males fight among one another to secure access to the female; even males in a coalition may show some aggression toward one another on approaching a female.^[122] One male eventually wins dominance over the others. Mating, observed mainly at night, begins with the male approaching the female, who lies down on the ground. No courtship behaviour is observed; the male immediately secures hold of the female's nape and copulation takes place. The pair then ignore each other and part ways. However, they meet and copulate a few more times within the next few days.^[54][123]Polyandrous, females can mate with several males.^[124] The mean number of motile sperm in a single ejaculation is nearly 25.3million.^[38] Most females never successfully raise a cub all the way to maturity, since the mortality rate is very high.^[125]

Gestation lasts nearly three months. The number of cubs born can vary from one to eight, though the common number is three to five. Birth takes place in a sheltered place such as thick vegetation. Each cub weighs nearly 150–400 g (5.3–14.1 oz) at birth; the eyes, shut at birth, open in fourto 11 days. Newborn cubs can crawl and spit; they start walking by the age of two weeks. Their nape, shoulders and back are thickly covered with long bluish grey hair. This downy underlying fur, called a 'mantle', gives them a Mohawk-type appearance; this fur is shed as the cheetah grows older.^[45] It has been suggested that this mane gives a cheetah cub the appearance of the honey badger, and could act as a camouflage in both animals.^[126] Cheetah cubs are highly vulnerable during the first few weeks of their life; mothers keep their cubs hidden in dense vegetation for the first month.^[54]

Generation length of the cheetah is six years.^[127]

Cubs start following their mothers at six weeks. The mother frequently shifts the cubs to new locations.^[54] A study of play behaviour of cheetah cubs showed that cubs tend to play after nursing or while they are on the move with their mothers. Play involves plenty of agility; attacks are seldom lethal. Playing cubs stay near their mothers. The study further revealed that while the cubs showed improvement in catching each other as they grew up, the ability to crouch and hide did not develop remarkably. Thus, it was suggested that play helps develop only certain aspects of predator defence.^[128] Weaning occurs at three to six months of age. The mother brings kills to her cubs; the cubs might purr as the mother licks them clean after the meal. Cubs as young as six months try to capture small prey like hares and juvenile gazelles. However, they may have to wait until as long as 15 months of age to make a successful kill on their own.^[54][56]

The offspring may stay with the mother for 13 to 20 months, associating with one another and feeding on kills together. After weaning, juveniles may form mixed-sex herds; young females may stay back with their mother, but there is hardly any interaction between the mother and daughters. The females in the mixed-sex herd gradually move out as they near sexual maturity.^[54] In the Serengeti, average age of independence of 70 observed litters was 17.1 months. Young females had their first litters at the age of about 2.4 years and subsequent litters about 20 months later.^[129] The lifespan of wild cheetahs is 14 to 15 years for females; their reproductive cycle typically ends by 12 years of age. Males generally live as long as 10 years.^[1]

Mortality

High mortality rates have been recorded in the Serengeti. In a 1994 study, nearly 77% of litters died before eight weeks of birth, and nearly 83% of those alive could not make it to adolescence (14weeks). Lions emerged as the major predator of juveniles, accounting for nearly 78% of the deaths. The study concluded that the survival rate of cubs until weaning was a mere 4.8%. This was attributed to the open terrain of the region, which does not allow cheetahs to conceal themselves.^[130] Cheetah cubs face higher mortality than most other large mammals.^[131][132]

It has been suggested that the significant lack of genetic diversity in cheetahs is a cause of poor quality and production of sperm, and birth defects such as cramped teeth, kinked tails, and bent limbs. Cheetahs do have low fertility rates, but they appear to have flourished for thousands of years with these low levels of genetic variance. Cheetah expert Laurie Marker points out that the high level of genetic uniformity would mean that if an infectious disease surfaced in a population, all of them have (or lack) the same level of immunity. In 1982, 60% of the cheetah population in the Wildlife Safari (Oregon, United States) died due to a peritonitis epidemic.^[133]

Distribution and habitat

The cheetah inhabits a variety of habitats. In Africa, it has been observed in dry forests, scrub forests, and savannahs.^[45] In prehistoric times, the cheetah was distributed throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. Gradually, it vanished from Europe. Nearly 500 years ago, the cheetah was still common throughout Africa, though it avoided deserts and tropical forests. In Eurasia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Palestine, Syria, and the Ganga and Indusriver valleys in South Asia sheltered large numbers of cheetahs.^[33] However, today the cheetah has been exterminated from the majority of its earlier range. The IUCN estimates that the total expanse of the range of the cheetah in earlier times was approximately 25,344,648 km² (9,785,623 sq mi); the range (as of 2015) has since then reduced to 2,709,054 km² (1,045,972 sq mi), a substantial decline of 89%.^[1]

Africa

The African cheetah is found mainly in the eastern and southern regions; its presence across the continent has declined to a mere 10% of the historical range. The range in eastern Africa has reduced to 6% of its original extent, so that presently it is distributed in an area of 310,586 km² (119,918 sq mi).^[1] In the Horn of Africa, the cheetah occurs in Ethiopia, Kenya, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.^[134] The range has not reduced as much in the southern part of the continent, where it occurs in an area of 1,223,388 km² (472,353 sq mi), 22% of its original range. Significant populations thrive in south-western Angola, Botswana, Malawi,^[15] south-western Mozambique, Namibia, northern South Africa, southern Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Very few isolated populations occur in the Sahara; the population density in this region is as low as two to three individuals per 10,000 km² (3,900 sq mi). They occur in very low numbers in northern and western Africa.

The distribution of prey may influence habitat preferences; in a study in the Kruger National Park, female cheetahs were found to spend a significant amount of time in woodlands, where impala occurred. It was suggested that though the forested area was unsuitable for hunting, the females preferred woodlands to encounter more impala. Male coalitions, on the other hand, shunned dense habitats and spent most of the time in open savannahs. An explanation given for this was that the coalitions prefer larger prey than impala.^[135] Although they do not prefer montane regions, cheetahs can occur at elevations as high as 4,000 m (13,000 ft). An open area with some cover, such as diffused bushes, is probably ideal for the cheetah because it needs to stalk and pursue its prey over a distance, exploiting its speed. This also minimises the risk of encountering larger carnivores. Complete lack of cover, however, can be a cause of prey loss and mortality.^[45][136]

Asia

In the past, the cheetah ranged across vast stretches in Asia, from the Arabian Peninsula in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east, and as far north as the Caspian and Aral Seas.^[1][24] Today, the cheetah has been extirpated in the majority of its historic range, except Iran and possibly a few areas in Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.^[137][138]

Status and threats

The cheetah has been classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN; it is listed under AppendixI of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) and AppendixI of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). In 2014 the CITES Standing Committee recognised the cheetah as a 'species of priority' in their strategies in northeastern Africa to counter wildlife trafficking.^[139] As of 2015, the IUCN gives the total number of surviving individuals as nearly 6,700.^[1] Regional estimates have been given as: 1,960 in eastern Africa (as of 2007); 4,190 in southern Africa (as of 2007);^[12][13] and 440 in western, central, and northern Africa (as of 2012). The southern half of the continent, therefore, is home to the largest number of cheetah. 29sub-populations have been identified, of which most consist of no more than 500 individuals.^[1] A small population of 60 to 100 individuals was reported from Iran in 2007.^[22] Populations are feared to be declining, especially those of adults.^[1]

The cheetah is threatened by habitat loss through agricultural and industrial expansion; moreover, the species apparently requires a large area to live in as indicated by its low population densities.^[1] It appears to be less capable of coexisting with humans than the leopard.^[140] Human interference disturbs hunting and feeding of cheetah.^[56] With 76% of its range consisting of unprotected land, the cheetah is often targeted by farmers and pastoralists who attempt to protect their livestock. However, cheetah is not known to prey on livestock.^[141] Game hunters may also try to harm cheetahs as they deprive them of valuable game. Roadkill is another threat, especially in areas where roads have been constructed near natural habitat or protected areas. Cases of roadkill involving cheetahs have been reported from Kalmand, Iran, Touran National Park, and Bafq. The threat posed by infectious diseases may be minor, given the low population densities and hence the reduced chance of infection.^[1]

In 2016, it was estimated that there are just 7,100 cheetahs remaining in the wild, and simulation modelling suggested that they are at risk of extinction. The authors suggested a re-categorisation on the IUCN Red List for the species from vulnerable to endangered.^[142][143]

Conservation measures

The IUCN has recommended co-operation between countries across the cheetah's range to minimise the conflict between cheetahs and human beings.^[1] A 2016 study showed that ecotourism can have a significantly positive impact on the conservation of the cheetah. Although the requirement of space for the habitat would have to be compromised in most cases, establishment of private reserves for cheetahs and ensuring the absence of predators and poachers could be a successful conservation measure.^[144] Additionally, the financial benefits accrued and the awareness generated can further aid the cause of the cheetah.^[1] At the same time, the animals should not be unnecessarily handled or disturbed, as cheetahs are particularly sensitive to human interference.^[56]

In Africa

The Range Wide Conservation Program for Cheetah and African Wild Dogs (RWCP), the brainchild of Sarah Durant and Rosie Woodroffe (of the Zoological Society of London), was started in 2007 with the primary aim of ensuring better conservation measures for the cheetah and the wild dog – two species with very low population densities. A joint initiative by the ZSL, the Wildlife Conservation Society, and the IUCN Cat Specialist Group, the program has among its major goals a review of the conservation policies adopted by the South African countries, and study and action on illegal hunting and trade of the cheetah.^[145][146] In a 2007 publication, Durant emphasised the role of land management and improvement in connectivity across the range in cheetah conservation, in the lack of which the populations might face severe fragmentation.^[147]

National action plans for cheetah conservation have been developed in Kenya (2007),^[148]Botswana (2007),^[149]South Africa (2009),^[150]Zimbabwe (2009)^[151]South Sudan (2009),^[152]Zambia (2009),^[153]Ethiopia (2010),^[154]Mozambique (2010),^[155][156]Niger (2012),^[148]Namibia (2013),^[1]Tanzania (2013),^[157]Benin (2014),^[158]and Chad (2015).^[148]

In Asia

In the 20th century, the populations of cheetah in India saw a drastic fall. The last physical evidence of the cheetah in India was thought to be three individuals, all shot by the Maharajah of Surguja (a man also noted for holding a record for shooting 1,360 tigers), in 1947 in eastern Madhya Pradesh,^[159] but a female was sighted in Koriya district, present-day Chhattisgarh, in 1951.^[160] During the early 2000s, scientists from the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, proposed a plan to cloneAsiatic cheetahs obtained from Iran. India asked Iran to transport one live pair to India, or, if that was not possible, allow them to collect sperm and eggs of the cheetah pair in Iran itself.^[161] However, Iran rejected both proposals.^[162]

In September 2009, the then Minister of Environment and Forests, Jairam Ramesh, assigned the Wildlife Trust of India and the Wildlife Institute of India with the task of examining the potential of cheetah reintroduction in the nation. The report, submitted in 2010, showed that the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary and Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, and Shahgarh Landscape and Desert National Park in Rajasthan have a high potential to support reintroduced cheetah populations. These areas were found to be spacious; of these four areas, the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary had the largest available area, 6,800 square kilometres (2,600 sq mi). Moreover, these were rich in prey availability. The Sanjay National Park, though comprising an area of 12.500 square kilometres (4.826 sq mi) and having supported cheetah populations before the independence of India in 1947, is no longer suitable for the cheetah due to low prey density and risks of poaching.^[163]

In 2001 the Iranian government collaborated with the Cheetah Conservation Fund, the IUCN, Panthera, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the Wildlife Conservation Society on the Conservation of Asiatic Cheetah Project (CACP) to protect the natural habitat of the Asiatic cheetah and its prey, to ensure that development projects do not hamper its survival, and to highlight the plight of the Asiatic cheetah.^[164][165] Iran declared 31August as National Cheetah Day in 2006.^[166]

Interaction with human beings

Taming

The cheetah shows little aggression toward human beings, and can be easily tamed, as it has been since antiquity.^[45] Reliefs in the Deir el-Bahari temple complex tell of an expedition by Egyptians to the Land of Punt during the reign of the pharaohHatshepsut (1507–1458BC) that fetched, among other things, animals called 'panthers' for Egypt. Two types of 'panthers' were depicted in these sculptures: leashed cheetahs, referred to as 'panthers of the north', and sturdy leopards, referred to as 'panthers of the south'. During the New Kingdom (16th to 11th centuriesBC), cheetahs were common pet animals for the royalty, who adorned the animals with ornate collars and leashes.^[40] The Egyptians would use their dogs to bring the concealed prey out in the open, after which a cheetah would be set upon it to kill it.^[167] A Sumerian seal dating back to nearly 3000BC, featuring a leashed animal resembling a cheetah, has fuelled speculation that the cheetah might have been first domesticated and used for hunting in Sumer (Mesopotamia).^{[59][168][169]} However, Thomas T. Allsen argues that the depicted animal might not be a cheetah given its largely dog-like features; moreover, the background gives an impression of a montane area, which the cheetah does not typically inhabit.^[170]

Mainly two kinds of theories have been put forth to explain the subsequent expansion of the cheetah into Asia, Europe, and the rest of Africa.^[40] Historians who accept the Sumerian origin of the domesticated cheetah – such as Heinz F. Friederichs and Burchard Brentjes – hold that the animal gradually spread out to central and northern Africa, from where it reached India. On the other hand, historians such as Frederick E. Zeuner accept the Egyptian origin and state that the cheetah gradually spread into central Asia, Iran, and India.^[40] In the third centuryAD, Roman author Claudius Aelianus wrote of tame panthers in India and 'smaller lions' that would be used for tracking and hunting; the account cannot be very reliable as Roman, as well as Greek, literature is not generally clear in its references to different types of cats.^[171]

Hunting with cheetahs became more prevalent toward the seventh centuryAD. The 11th-century Clephane Horn, possibly of Byzantine origin, is believed to depict domesticated hunting cheetahs.^[172] In the Middle East, the cheetah would accompany the nobility to hunts in special seats behind saddles. Cheetahs continued to be associated with royalty and elegance in western Asia until as late as the 19th century. The first phase of taming would take several weeks, in which the cheetah would be kept tethered and made to get accustomed to human beings. Next, the cheetah would be tempted with food and trained to mount horses. Finally, its hunting instincts would be aroused by slaughtering animals before it. The whole process could take as long as a year to complete. In eastern Asia, the records are confusing as regional names for the leopard and the cheetah may be used interchangeably. The earliest depiction of cheetahs from eastern Asia dates back to the Tang dynasty (7th to 10th centuriesAD); paintings depict tethered cheetahs as well as cheetahs mounted on horses. Chinese emperors would use cheetahs, as well as caracals, as gifts. In the 13th and the 14th centuries, the Yuan rulers bought numerous caracals, cheetahs, and tigers from the western parts of the empire and Muslim merchants, in return for gold, silver, cash, and silk. According to the Ming Shilu, the subsequent Ming dynasty (14th to 17th centuries) continued this practice. The cheetah gradually entered Eurasia toward the 14th century, though they never became as popular as they had in the Middle East.^[40] The Mughal ruler Akbar the Great (1556–1605) is said to have kept as many as 1000 cheetahs.^[89] However, his son Jahangir wrote in his memoirs, Tuzk-e-Jahangiri, that only one of them gave birth to cubs.^[40] Mughal rulers trained cheetahs as well as caracals in a similar way as the West Asians, and used them to hunt game – especially blackbuck. The rampant hunting severely affected the populations of wild animals.^[173][174]

In captivity

Mortality under captivity is generally high; reasons include stillbirths, birth defects, cannibalism, hypothermia, neglect of cubs by mothers, and infectious diseases.^[175] A study comparing the health of captive and wild cheetahs noted that despite having similar genetic make-up, wild cheetahs are far healthier than their captive counterparts. The study identified possible stress factors such as restricted habitat and interaction with human beings and other carnivores, and recommended private and spacious areas for captive cheetahs.^[176] A study of diseases suffered by captive cheetahs in the period 1989–92 in several North American zoos showed that hepatic veno-occlusive disease, a disease of the liver, had affected 82% of the deceased cheetahs, caused nine deaths, and occurred in 51% of living females. Chronic gastritis was detected in 91% of the population. Glomerulosclerosis, a disease of the kidneys, emerged as another significant disease, affecting 84% of the cheetahs; another renal disease, nephrosclerosis, affected 39% of the cheetahs. Feline infectious peritonitis caused two deaths. Pneumonia was a major cause for juvenile deaths.^[177] Another study concluded that excess of vitaminA in their diets could result in veno-occlusive disease in their livers.^[178]

Moreover, cheetahs are poor breeders in captivity, while wild individuals are far more successful.^[179] In a 1992 study, females in Serengeti were found to have 95% success rate in breeding.^[121] In contrast, only 20% of the North American captive cheetahs bred successfully in 1991.^[180] Studies have shown that in-vitro fertilisation in cheetah poses more difficulties than are faced in the case of other cats.^[181][182] On November 26, 2017, a female cheetah named Bingwa gave birth to eight cubs in the Saint Louis Zoo setting a record for the most captive births for an African cheetah.^[183][184] One strategy for helping captive cheetahs breed is to pair them with a companion dog.^[185] Janet Rose-Hinostroza, an animal training supervisor at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, told National Geographic in 2015 that 'a dominant dog is very helpful because cheetahs are quite shy instinctively, and you can't breed that out of them. When you pair them, the cheetah looks to the dog for cues and learns to model their behavior. It's about getting them to read that calm, happy-go-lucky vibe from the dog.'^[186]

In culture

The cheetah has been widely portrayed in a variety of artistic works. In Bacchus and Ariadne, an oil painting by the 16th-century Italian painter Titian, the chariot of the Greek god Dionysus (Bacchus) is depicted as being drawn by two cheetahs. The cheetahs in the painting were previously considered to be leopards.^[187] In 1764 English painter George Stubbs commemorated the gifting of a cheetah to George III by the English Governor of Madras, Sir George Pigot in his painting Cheetah with Two Indian Attendants and a Stag. The painting depicts a cheetah, hooded and collared by two Indian servants, along with a stag it was supposed to prey upon.^[188][189] The 1896 painting The Caress, by the 19th-century Belgian symbolist painterFernand Khnopff, is a representation of the myth of Oedipus and the Sphinx. It portrays a creature with a woman's head and a cheetah's body (often misidentified as a leopard's).^[190]

The Bill Thomas Cheetah American sports/racing car, a Chevrolet-based coupe first designed and driven in 1963, was an attempt to challenge Carroll Shelby's Shelby Cobra in American sports car competition of the 1960s era. Due to only two dozen or fewer chassis ever being built, with only a dozen of these being complete cars, the Cheetah was never homologated for competition beyond prototype status, with its production ending in 1966.^[191]

A variety of literature mentions the cheetah. In 1969 author Joy Adamson, of Born Free fame, wrote The Spotted Sphinx, a biography of her pet cheetah Pippa.^[192]Hussein, An Entertainment, a novel by Patrick O'Brian set in the British Raj period in India, illustrates the practice of royalty keeping and training cheetahs to hunt antelopes.^[193] The book How It Was with Dooms tells the true story of a family raising an orphaned cheetah cub named Dooms in Kenya.^[194] The 2005 film Duma was loosely based on this book.^[195]

The cheetah has often been featured in marketing and animation. In 1986 Frito-Lay introduced the Chester Cheetah, an anthropomorphic cheetah, as the mascot for their Cheetos.^[196][197] The first release of Apple Inc.'s Mac OS X, the Mac OS X 10.0, was code-named 'Cheetah'; the subsequent versions released before 2013 were all named after cats.^[198] The animated series ThunderCats had a character named 'Cheetara', an anthropomorphic cheetah, voiced by Lynne Lipton.^{[citation needed]} Comic book superheroine Wonder Woman's chief adversary is Dr.Barbara Ann Minerva, alias The Cheetah.^[199]

See also

References

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Further reading

• Great Cats, Majestic Creatures of the Wild, ed. John Seidensticker, illus. Frank Knight, (Rodale Press, 1991), ISBN0-87857-965-6
• Cheetah, Katherine (or Kathrine) and Karl Ammann, Arco Pub, (1985), ISBN0-668-06259-2.
• Science (vol 311, p. 73)
• Marker, L. (2002). 'Aspects of Namibian cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus): biology, ecology and conservation strategies'(PDF). PHD. Thesis, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford.

External links

• 'Cheetah' at the Encyclopedia of Life
• 'Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus'. IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group.
• 'Acinonyx jubatus'. Biodiversity Heritage Library. Bibliography.
• 'Cheetah Conservation Fund'. cheeta.org.
• 'Cheetah and Wildlife Trust'. De Wildt. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05.
• 'On the Chase With Cheetahs'. Life magazine. Slideshow.
• 'Fake Flies and Cheating Cheetahs: measuring the speed of a cheetah'. ABC.net.au. Australia.

Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping animals, or pursuing or tracking them with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators that can be dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade. Lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.

Hunting arose in Homo erectus or earlier, on the order of millions of years ago. Hunting is deeply embedded in human culture. Hunting an animal for its meat can also be seen as a more natural way to obtain animal protein since regulated hunting does not cause the same environmental issues as raising domestic animals for meat, especially on factory farms.

Hunting can also be a means of pest control. Hunting advocates state that hunting can be a necessary component^[1] of modern wildlife management, for example, to help maintain a population of healthy animals within an environment's ecological carrying capacity when natural checks such as predators are absent or very rare.^[2] However, excessive hunting has also heavily contributed to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals.^[3]

The pursuit, capture and release, or capture for food of fish is called fishing, which is not commonly categorised as a form of hunting. It is also not considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to kill them, as in wildlife photography, birdwatching, or scientific research activities which involve tranquilizing or tagging of animals or birds. The practice of foraging or gathering materials from plants and mushrooms is also considered separate from hunting.

Skillful tracking and acquisition of an elusive target has caused the word hunt to be used in the vernacular as a metaphor, as in treasure hunting, 'bargain hunting', and even 'hunting down' corruption and waste.

Some animal rights activists argue that hunting is cruel, unnecessary, and unethical.^[4][5]

• 2History
• 3Religion
• 4National traditions
  • 4.4United Kingdom
  • 4.5United States
• 6Laws
• 8Trophy hunting
• 11Conservation
  • 11.1Legislation
  • 11.2Species

Etymology[edit]

The word hunt serves as both a noun ('to be on a hunt') and a verb. The noun has been dated to the early 12th century, 'act of chasing game,' from the verb hunt. Old English had huntung, huntoþ. The meaning of 'a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds' is first recorded in the 1570s. Meaning 'the act of searching for someone or something' is from about 1600.

The verb, Old English huntian 'to chase game' (transitive and intransitive), perhaps developed from hunta 'hunter,' is related to hentan 'to seize,' from Proto-Germanichuntojan (the source also of Gothichinþan 'to seize, capture,' Old High Germanhunda 'booty'), which is of uncertain origin. The general sense of 'search diligently' (for anything) is first recorded c. 1200.^[6]

History[edit]

Lower to Middle Paleolithic[edit]

Hunting has a long history. It pre-dates the emergence of Homo sapiens (anatomically modern humans) and may even predate genus Homo.

The oldest undisputed evidence for hunting dates to the Early Pleistocene, consistent with the emergence and early dispersal of Homo erectus, about 1.7 million years ago (Acheulean).^[7]While it is undisputed that Homo erectus were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of Homo erectus from its australopithecine ancestors, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, is emphasised in the so-called 'hunting hypothesis' and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction.

There is no direct evidence for hunting predating Homo erectus, in either Homo habilis or in Australopithecus.The early hominid ancestors of humans were probably frugivores or omnivores, with a partially carnivore diet from scavenging rather than hunting.Evidence for australopithecine meat consumption was presented in the 1990s.^[8]It has nevertheless often been assumed that at least occasional hunting behavior may have been present well before the emergence of Homo.This can be argued on the basis of comparison with chimpanzees, the closest extant relatives of humans, who also engage in hunting, indicating that the behavioral trait may have been present in the Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor as early as 5 million years ago. The common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) regularly engages in troop predation behaviour where bands of beta males are led by an alpha male. Bonobos (Pan paniscus) have also been observed to occasionally engage in group hunting,^[9] although more rarely than Pan troglodytes, mainly subsisting on a frugivorous diet.^[10]Indirect evidence for Oldowan era hunting, by early Homo or late Australopithecus, has been presented in a 2009 study based onan Oldowan site in southwestern Kenya.^[11]

Louis Binford (1986) criticised the idea that early hominids and early humans were hunters. On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal remains of the consumed animals, he concluded that hominids and early humans were mostly scavengers, not hunters,^[12]Blumenschine (1986) proposed the idea of confrontational scavenging, which involves challenging and scaring off other predatorsafter they have made a kill, which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining protein-rich meat by early humans.^[13]

Stone spearheads dated as early as 500,000 years ago were found in South Africa.^[14] Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California, has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps, five million years ago.^[15]The earliest dated find of surviving wooden hunting spears dates to the very end of the Lower Paleolithic, just before 300,000 years ago.The Schöningen spears, found in 1976 in Germany, are associated with Homo heidelbergensis.^[16]

The hunting hypothesis sees the emergence of behavioral modernity in the Middle Paleolithic as directly related to hunting, including mating behaviour, the establishment of language, culture, and religion, mythology and animal sacrifice.

Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic[edit]

Evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.^[17]North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.^[18]However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.^[19][20]

Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock and the dawn of agriculture, beginning about 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. In addition to the spear, hunting weapons developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the atlatl (a spear-thrower; before 30,000 years ago) and the bow (18,000 years ago). By the Mesolithic, hunting strategies had diversified with the development of these more far-reaching weapons and the domestication of the dog about 15,000 years ago. Evidence puts the earliest known mammoth hunting in Asia with spears to approximately 16,200 years ago.^[21]

Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history. It has been suggested that in North America and Eurasia, caribou and wild reindeer 'may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting'^[22] (see also Reindeer Age), although the varying importance of different species depended on the geographic location.

Mesolithic hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery. They still persist in some tribal societies, albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved Paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas (Aché), some Central and Southern African (San people), some peoples of New Guinea (Fayu), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka, and a handful of uncontacted peoples. In Africa, one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes are the Hadza of Tanzania.^[23]

Neolithic and Antiquity[edit]

Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after the development of agriculture, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the human food supply.The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included protein, bone for implements, sinew for cordage, fur, feathers, rawhide and leather used in clothing.

Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or agriculture.^[24] For example, Inuit people in the Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks, clothing, and footwear.

On ancient reliefs, especially from Mesopotamia, kings are often depicted as hunters of big game such as lions and are often portrayed hunting from a war chariot. The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the horned godCernunnos and lunar goddesses of classical antiquity, the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana. Taboos are often related to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve surrounding a temple. Euripides' tale of Artemis and Actaeon, for example, may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or impudent boasting.

With the domestication of the dog, birds of prey, and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed, including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry, and ferreting. While these are all associated with medieval hunting, over time, various dog breeds were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter.

Pastoral and agricultural societies[edit]

Even as agriculture and animal husbandry became more prevalent, hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed. Hunter-gatherer societies persisted, even when increasingly confined to marginal areas. And within agricultural systems, hunting served to kill animals that prey upon domestic and wild animals or to attempt to extirpate animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage.

When hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a social one, two trends emerged:

1. the development of the role of the specialist hunter, with special training and equipment
2. the co-option of hunting as a 'sport' for those of an upper social class

The meaning of the word game in Middle English evolved to include an animal which is hunted. As game became more of a luxury than a necessity, the stylised pursuit of it also became a luxury. Dangerous hunting, such as for lions or wild boars, often done on horseback or from a chariot, had a function similar to tournaments and manly sports. Hunting ranked as an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace.^[25]

In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen, but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they 'hunt the King's deer'. In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all.^[26]

In Medieval Europe, hunting was considered by Johannes Scotus Eriugena to be part of the set of seven mechanical arts.^[27]

Use of dogs[edit]

Although various other animals have been used to aid the hunter, such as ferrets, the dog has assumed many very important uses to the hunter.The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog's independence from humans is deferred. Though dogs can survive independently of humans, and in many cases do, as with feral dogs, where hunger is not a primary factor, the species tends to defer to human control in exchange for habitation, food and support.^[28]

Dogs today are used to find, chase, retrieve, and sometimes to kill the game. Hunting dogs allow humans to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt. Different breeds of dogs are used for different types of hunting. Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as the Labrador Retriever, the Golden Retriever, the Chesapeake Bay Retriever, the Brittany Spaniel, and other similar breeds. Game birds are flushed out using flushing spaniels such as the English Springer Spaniel, the various Cocker Spaniels and similar breeds.

The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs was banned under the Hunting Act 2004. The wild mammals include fox, hare, deer and mink. Hunting with dogs is permissible, however, where it has been carried out in accordance with one of the exceptions in the Act.^[29]

Religion[edit]

Many prehistoric deities are depicted as predators or prey of humans, often in a zoomorphic form, perhaps alluding to the importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures.

In many pagan religions, specific rituals are conducted before or after a hunt; the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place.^{[citation needed]} Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult.^{[citation needed]}

Indian and Eastern religions[edit]

Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an acceptable occupation, as well as a sport of the kingly. Even figures considered divine are described to have engaged in hunting. One of the names of the god Shiva is Mrigavyadha, which translates as 'the deer hunter' (mriga means deer; vyadha means hunter). The word Mriga, in many Indian languages including Malayalam, not only stands for deer, but for all animals and animal instincts (Mriga Thrishna). Shiva, as Mrigavyadha, is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings. In the epic Ramayana, Dasharatha, the father of Rama, is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark. During one of his hunting expeditions, he accidentally killed Shravana, mistaking him for game. During Rama's exile in the forest, Ravana kidnapped his wife, Sita, from their hut, while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer, and his brother Lakshman went after him. According to the Mahabharat, Pandu, the father of the Pandavas, accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer. Krishna is said to have died after being accidentally wounded by an arrow of a hunter.

Jainism teaches followers to have tremendous respect for all of life. Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are the fundamental conditions for being a Jain.

Buddhism's first precept is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoid killing any living animals. Buddha explained the issue by saying 'all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill.'

In Sikhism, only meat obtained from hunting, or slaughtered with the Jhatka is permitted. The Sikh gurus, especially Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were ardent hunters. Many old Sikh Rehatnamas like Prem Sumarag, recommend hunting wild boar and deer. However, among modern Sikhs, the practise of hunting has died down; some even saying that all meat is forbidden.

Christianity, Judaism, and Islam[edit]

From early Christian times, hunting has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church clerics. Thus the Corpus Juris Canonici (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says, 'We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons.' The Fourth Council of the Lateran, held under Pope Innocent III, decreed (canon xv): 'We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics.' The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: 'Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking' (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy (clamorosa) hunting unlawful, but not quiet (quieta) hunting.

Ferraris (s.v. 'Clericus', art. 6) gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or 'honest' recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however (De episc., l. IV, c. xix), thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church.

Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan, Avignon, Liège, Cologne, and elsewhere. Benedict XIV (De synodo diœces., l. II, c. x) declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law. In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether.

It is important to note that most Christian, do not observe kosherdietary laws hence most Christian have no religious restrictions on eating the animals hunted. This is in accord with what is found in the Acts of the Apostles 15:28–29, and 1 Timothy 4:4.

In Jewish law hunting is not forbidden although there is an aversion to it. The great 18th-century authority Rabbi Yechezkel Landau after a study concluded although 'hunting would not be considered cruelty to animals insofar as the animal is generally killed quickly and not tortured.. There is an unseemly element in it, namely cruelty.' The other issue is that hunting can be dangerous and Judaism places an extreme emphasis on the value of human life.^[30][31]

Islamic Sharia Law permits hunting of lawful animals and birds if they cannot be easily caught and slaughtered.^[32]

National traditions[edit]

New Zealand[edit]

New Zealand has a strong hunting culture. The islands making up New Zealand originally had no land mammals apart from bats. However, once Europeans arrived, game animals were introduced by acclimatisation societies to provide New Zealanders with sport and a hunting resource. Deer, pigs, goats, hare, tahr and chamois all adapted well to the New Zealand terrain, and with no natural predators, their population exploded. Government agencies view the animals as pests due to their effects on the natural environment and on agricultural production, but hunters view them as a resource.

Shikar (Indian subcontinent)[edit]

During the feudal and colonial times in British India, hunting was regarded as a regal sport in the numerous princely states, as many maharajas and nawabs, as well as British officers, maintained a whole corps of shikaris (big-game hunters), who were native professional hunters. They would be headed by a master of the hunt, who might be styled mir-shikar. Often, they recruited the normally low-ranking local tribes because of their traditional knowledge of the environment and hunting techniques. Big game, such as Bengal tigers, might be hunted from the back of an elephant.

Regional social norms are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a few sects, such as the Bishnoi, lay special emphasis on the conservation of particular species, such as the antelope. India's Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life, or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such an animal. In this case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.^[33]

Safari[edit]

A safari, from a Swahili word meaning 'a long journey', especially in Africa, is defined as an overland journey. Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularised by the US author Ernest Hemingway and President Theodore Roosevelt. A safari may consist of a several-days – or even weeks-long journey, with camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game. Nowadays, it is often used to describe tours through African national parks to watch or hunt wildlife.

Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by licensed and highly regulated professional hunters, local guides, skinners, and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari, where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation, and outfitting is done by the hunter himself.

United Kingdom[edit]

Unarmed fox hunting on horseback with hounds is the type of hunting most closely associated with the United Kingdom; in fact, 'hunting' without qualification implies fox hunting. What in other countries is called 'hunting' is called 'shooting' (birds) or 'stalking' (deer) in Britain. Originally a form of vermin control to protect livestock, fox hunting became a popular social activity for newly wealthy upper classes in Victorian times and a traditional rural activity for riders and foot followers alike. Similar to fox hunting in many ways is the chasing of hares with hounds. Pairs of Sight hounds (or long-dogs), such as greyhounds, may be used to pursue a hare in coursing, where the greyhounds are marked as to their skill in coursing the hare (but are not intended to actually catch it), or the hare may be pursued with scent hounds such as beagles or harriers. Other sorts of foxhounds may also be used for hunting stags (deer) or mink. Deer stalking with rifles is carried out on foot without hounds, using stealth.

These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK. Animal welfare supporters believe that hunting causes unnecessary suffering to foxes, horses, and hounds. Proponents argue that it is culturally and perhaps economically important. Using dogs to chase wild mammals was made illegal in February 2005 by the Hunting Act 2004; there were a number of exemptions (under which the activity may not be illegal) in the act for hunting with hounds, but no exemptions at all for hare-coursing.

Shooting traditions[edit]

Game birds, especially pheasants, are shot with shotguns for sport in the UK; the British Association for Shooting and Conservation says that over a million people per year participate in shooting, including game shooting, clay pigeon shooting, and target shooting.^[35]Shooting as practised in Britain, as opposed to traditional hunting, requires little questing for game—around thirty-five million birds are released onto shooting estates every year, some having been factory farmed. Shoots can be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions and assistants to help load shotguns. When in position, 'beaters' move through the areas of cover, swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out. Such events are often called 'drives'. The open season for grouse in the UK begins on 12 August, the so-called Glorious Twelfth. The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the Game Act 1831.

A similar tradition exists in Spain

United States[edit]

North American hunting pre-dates the United States by thousands of years and was an important part of many pre-Columbian Native American cultures. Native Americans retain some hunting rights and are exempt from some laws as part of Indian treaties and otherwise under federal law—examples include eagle feather laws and exemptions in the Marine Mammal Protection Act. This is considered particularly important in Alaskan native communities.

Hunting is primarily regulated by state law; additional regulations are imposed through United States environmental law in the case of migratory birds and endangered species. Regulations vary widely from state to state and govern the areas, time periods, techniques and methods by which specific game animals may be hunted. Some states make a distinction between protected species and unprotected species (often vermin or varmints for which there are no hunting regulations). Hunters of protected species require a hunting license in all states, for which completion of a hunting safety course is sometimes a prerequisite.

Typically, game animals are divided into several categories for regulatory purposes. Typical categories, along with example species, are as follows:

• Big game: white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, elk, caribou, bear, bighorn sheep, pronghorn, boar, javelina, bison
• Small game: rabbit, hare, squirrel, opossum, raccoon, porcupine, skunk, ring-tailed cat, armadillo, ruffed grouse
• Furbearers: beaver, red fox, mink, pine marten, musk rat, otter, bobcat
• Predators: cougar (mountain lion and panther), wolf, coyote
• Upland game bird: grouse, woodcock, chukar, pheasant, quail, dove
• Waterfowl: duck, teal, merganser, geese, swan

Hunting big game typically requires a 'tag' for each animal harvested. Tags must be purchased in addition to the hunting license, and the number of tags issued to an individual is typically limited. In cases where there are more prospective hunters than the quota for that species, tags are usually assigned by lottery. Tags may be further restricted to a specific area, or wildlife management unit. Hunting migratory waterfowl requires a duck stamp from the Fish and Wildlife Service in addition to the appropriate state hunting license.

Harvest of animals other than big game is typically restricted by a bag limit and a possession limit. A bag limit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that an individual can harvest in a single day. A possession limit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that can be in an individual's possession at any time.

Shooting[edit]

Gun usage in hunting is typically regulated by game category, area within the state, and time period. Regulations for big-game hunting often specify a minimum caliber or muzzle energy for firearms. The use of rifles is often banned for safety reasons in areas with high population densities or limited topographic relief. Regulations may also limit or ban the use of lead in ammunition because of environmental concerns. Specific seasons for bow hunting or muzzle-loadingblack-powder guns are often established to limit competition with hunters using more effective weapons.

Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class or culture; a 2006 poll showed seventy-eight percent of Americans supported legal hunting,^[36] although relatively few Americans actually hunt. At the beginning of the 21st century, just six percent of Americans hunted. Southerners in states along the eastern seaboard hunted at a rate of five percent, slightly below the national average, and while hunting was more common in other parts of the South at nine percent, these rates did not surpass those of the Plains states, where twelve percent of Midwesterners hunted. Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the national average.^[37] Overall, in the 1996–2006 period, the number of hunters over the age of sixteen declined by ten percent, a drop attributable to a number of factors including habitat loss and changes in recreation habits.^[38]

Regulation[edit]

Regulation of hunting within the United States dates from the 19th century. Some modern hunters see themselves as conservationists and sportsmen in the mode of Theodore Roosevelt and the Boone and Crockett Club. Local hunting clubs and national organizations provide hunter education and help protect the future of the sport by buying land for future hunting use. Some groups represent a specific hunting interest, such as Ducks Unlimited, Pheasants Forever, or the Delta Waterfowl Foundation. Many hunting groups also participate in lobbying the federal government and state government.

Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to state agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters over sixteen years old, has raised over $700 million to help purchase more than 5,200,000 acres (8,100 sq mi; 21,000 km²) of habitat for the National Wildlife Refuge System lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species and are often open to hunting. States also collect money from hunting licenses to assist with management of game animals, as designated by law. A key task of federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, including species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans.

Varmint hunting[edit]

Varmint hunting is an American phrase for the selective killing of non-game animals seen as pests. While not always an efficient form of pest control, varmint hunting achieves selective control of pests while providing recreation and is much less regulated. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Some animals, such as wild rabbits or squirrels, may be utilised for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are varmints depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints may include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. In the US state of Louisiana, a non-native rodent, the coypu, has become so destructive to the local ecosystem that the state has initiated a bounty program to help control the population.

Fair chase[edit]

The principles of the fair chase^[39] have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over one hundred years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularised by Theodore Roosevelt, and perpetuated by Roosevelt's formation of the Boone and Crockett Club, has been central to the development of the modern fair chase tradition. Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting, a book by Jim Posewitz, describes fair chase:

'Fundamental to ethical hunting is the idea of fair chase. This concept addresses the balance between the hunter and the hunted. It is a balance that allows hunters to occasionally succeed while animals generally avoid being taken.'^[40]

When Internet hunting was introduced in 2005, allowing people to hunt over the Internet using remotely controlled guns, the practice was widely criticised by hunters as violating the principles of fair chase. As a representative of the National Rifle Association (NRA) explained, 'The NRA has always maintained that fair chase, being in the field with your firearm or bow, is an important element of hunting tradition. Sitting at your desk in front of your computer, clicking at a mouse, has nothing to do with hunting.'^[41]

One hunting club declares that a fair chase shall not involve the taking of animals under the following conditions:

• Helpless in a trap, deep snow or water, or on ice.
• From any power vehicle or power boat.
• By 'jacklighting' or shining at night.
• By the use of any tranquilizers or poisons.
• While inside escape-proof fenced enclosures.
• By the use of any power vehicle or power boat for herding or driving animals, including use of aircraft to land alongside or to communicate with or direct a hunter on the ground.
• By the use of electronic devices for attracting, locating or pursuing game or guiding the hunter to such game, or by the use of a bow or arrow to which any electronic device is attached.^[42]

Ranches[edit]

Indian blackbuck, nilgai, axis deer, fallow deer, and barasingha can now be found on hunting ranches in Texas, where they were introduced for sport hunting. Hunters can pay upwards of $4000 as fees for hunting a barasingha.

Russia[edit]

The Russian imperial hunts evolved from hunting traditions of early Russian rulers—Grand Princes and Tsars—under the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts. The imperial hunts were organised mainly in Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo, and Gatchina.

Australia[edit]

Hunting in Australia has evolved around the hunting and eradication of various animals considered to be pests. All native animals are protected by law, and can only be killed under a special permit. Hunted introduced species include deer, pigs, goats, foxes, and rabbits.

Japan[edit]

The numbers of licensed hunters in Japan, including those using snares and guns, is generally decreasing, while their average age is increasing. As of 2010, there were approximately 190,000 registered hunters, approximately 65% of whom were sixty years old or older.^[43]

Trinidad and Tobago[edit]

There is a very active tradition of hunting of small to medium-sized wild game in Trinidad and Tobago. Hunting is carried out with firearms, and aided by the use of hounds, with the illegal use of trap guns and snare nets. With approximately 12,000 sport hunters applying for hunting permits in recent years (in a very small country of about the size of the state of Delaware at about 5128 square kilometers and 1.3 million inhabitants), there is some concern that the practice might not be sustainable. In addition there are at present no bag limits and the open season is comparatively very long (5 months – October to February inclusive). As such hunting pressure from legal hunters is very high. Added to that, there is a thriving and very lucrative black market for poached wild game (sold and enthusiastically purchased as expensive luxury delicacies) and the numbers of commercial poachers in operation is unknown but presumed to be fairly high. As a result, the populations of the five major mammalian game species (red-rumped agouti, lowland paca, nine-banded armadillo, collared peccary, and red brocket deer) are thought to be quite low (although scientifically conducted population studies are only just recently being conducted as of 2013). It appears that the red brocket deer population has been extirpated on Tobago as a result of over-hunting. Various herons, ducks, doves, the green iguana, the gold tegu, the spectacled caiman and the common opossum are also commonly hunted and poached. There is also some poaching of 'fully protected species', including red howler monkeys and capuchin monkeys, southern tamanduas, Brazilian porcupines, yellow-footed tortoises, Trinidad piping guans and even one of the national birds, the scarlet ibis. Legal hunters pay very small fees to obtain hunting licences and undergo no official basic conservation biology or hunting-ethics training. There is presumed to be relatively very little subsistence hunting in the country (with most hunting for either sport or commercial profit). The local wildlife management authority is under-staffed and under-funded, and as such very little in the way of enforcement is done to uphold existing wildlife management laws, with hunting occurring both in and out of season, and even in wildlife sanctuaries. There is some indication that the government is beginning to take the issue of wildlife management more seriously, with well drafted legislation being brought before Parliament in 2015. It remains to be seen if the drafted legislation will be fully adopted and financially supported by the current and future governments, and if the general populace will move towards a greater awareness of the importance of wildlife conservation and change the culture of wanton consumption to one of sustainable management.

Wildlife management[edit]

Hunting is claimed to give resource managers an important tool^[44][45] in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage human health or safety.^{[citation needed][46]}

In some cases, hunting actually can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established, resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area, thus artificially increasing the population.^[47] Hunting advocates^[who?] assert that hunting reduces intraspecific competition for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some environmentalists assert^[who?] that (re)introducing predators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing significant amounts of free lead into the environment and food chain.

In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to set rules on the number, manner and conditions in which game may be hunted.

Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations, as has been the case with deer in North America. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters, although others may include amateur hunters. Many US city and local governments hire professional and amateur hunters each year to reduce populations of animals such as deer that are becoming hazardous in a restricted area, such as neighbourhood parks and metropolitan open spaces.

A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools that are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates in countries that rely on bag limits per hunter instead of per area.^{[citation needed]}

Laws[edit]

Illegal hunting and harvesting of wild species contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws is called poaching. Game preservation is one of the tactics used to prevent poaching. Violations of hunting laws and regulations involving poaching are normally punishable by law.^[48] Punishment can include confiscation of equipment, fines or a prison sentence.

Right to hunt[edit]

The right to hunt − sometimes in combination with the right to fish − is protected implicitly, as a consequence of the right of ownership,^[49] or explicitly, as a right on its own,^[50][51] in a number of jurisdictions. For instance, as of 2019, a total of 22 U.S. states explicitly recognize a subjective right to hunt in their constitutions.^[51][52]

Bag limits[edit]

Bag limits are provisions under the law that control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed, although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also jurisdictions where bag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances. The phrase bag limits comes from the custom among hunters of small game to carry successful kills in a small basket, similar to a fishing creel.

Where bag limits are used, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits; for example, ducks can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day.^[53] Big game, like moose, most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter.^{[citation needed]} Bag limits may also regulate the size, sex, or age of animal that a hunter can kill. In many cases, bag limits are designed to allocate harvest among the hunting population more equitably rather than to protect animal populations, as protecting the population would necessitate regional density-dependent maximum bags.

Closed and open season[edit]

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A closed season is a time during which hunting an animal of a given species is contrary to law. Typically, closed seasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or to protect them during their breeding season.^[54] By extension, the period that is not the closed season is known as the open season.

Methods[edit]

Historical, subsistence, and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when, and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, hunting equipment, and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique. Laws may forbid sport hunters from using some methods used primarily in poaching and wildlife management.

• Baiting is the use of decoys, lures, scent, or food.
• Battue involves scaring animals (by beating sticks) into a killing zone or ambush.
• Beagling is the use of beagles in hunting rabbits, and sometimes in hunting foxes.
• Beating uses human beaters to flush out game from an area or drive it into position.
• Blind hunting or stand hunting is waiting for animals from a concealed or elevated position.
• Calling is the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals.
• Camouflage is the use of visual or odour concealment to blend with the environment.
• Dogs may be used to course or to help flush, herd, drive, track, point at, pursue, or retrieve prey.
• Driving is the herding of animals in a particular direction, usually toward another hunter in the group.
• Flushing is the practice of scaring animals from concealed areas.
• Ghillie suit is a type of gear a person can wear to blend with environment.^[55]
• Glassing is the use of optics, such as binoculars, to locate animals more easily.
• Glue is an indiscriminate passive form to kill birds.^[56]
• Internet hunting is a method of hunting over the Internet using webcams and remotely controlled guns.
• Netting involves using nets, including active netting with the use of cannon nets and rocket nets.
• Persistence hunting is the use of running and tracking to pursue the prey to exhaustion.^[57]
• Scouting for game is typically done prior to a hunt and will ensure the desired species are in a chosen area. Looking for animal sign such as tracks, scat, etc.. and utilizing 'trail cameras' are commonly used tactics while scouting.
• Shooting is the use of a ranged weapon such as a gun, bow, crossbow, or slingshot.
• Solunar theory says that animals move according to the location of the moon in comparison to their bodies and is said to have been used long before this by hunters to know the best times to hunt their desired game.^[58]
• Spotlighting or shining is the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing.
• Stalking or still hunting is the practice of walking quietly in search of animals or in pursuit of an individual animal.
• Tracking is the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals.
• Trapping is the use of devices such as snares, pits, and deadfalls to capture or kill an animal.

Trophy hunting[edit]

Trophy hunting is the selective seeking of wild game. It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics; this is sometimes known as canned hunts.^[59]

History[edit]

In the 19th century, southern and central European sport hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, which was then displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was typically discarded. Some cultures, however, disapprove of such waste. In Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was—and still is—frowned upon. Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport.^{[citation needed]} The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists and is a significant industry in some areas.^{[citation needed]}

Conservation tool[edit]

According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting 'provides an economic incentive' for ranchers to continue to breed those species, and that hunting 'reduces the threat of the species' extinction.'^[60][61]

A scientific study in the journal, Biological Conservation, states that trophy hunting is of 'major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas, including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife-based land uses such as photographic ecotourism.'^[62] However, another study states that less than 3% of a trophy hunters' expenditures reach the local level, meaning that the economic incentive and benefit is 'minimal, particularly when we consider the vast areas of land that hunting concessions occupy.'^[63]

Financial incentives from trophy hunting effectively more than double the land area that is used for wildlife conservation, relative to what would be conserved relying on national parks alone according to Biological Conservation,^[62] although local communities usually derive no more than 18 cents per hectare from trophy hunting.^[63]

Trophy hunting has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to research studies in Conservation Biology,^[64]Journal of Sustainable Tourism,^[65]Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use,^[66] and Animal Conservation.^[64][67] Studies by the Centre for Responsible Tourism^[68] and the IUCN state that ecotourism, which includes more than hunting, is a superior economic incentive, generating twice the revenue per acre and 39 times more permanent employment.^[69] At the crosssection of trophy hunting, ecotourism and conservation is green hunting, a trophy hunting alternative where hunters pay to dart animals that need to be tranquilized for conservation projects.^[70]

The U.S. House Committee on Natural Resources in 2016 concluded that trophy hunting may be contributing to the extinction of certain animals.^[71] Conservationist groups such as IFAW assert that trophy hunting is a key factor in the 'silent extinction' of giraffes.^[72]

According to a national survey that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducts every five years, fewer people are hunting, even as population rises. National Public Radio reported, a graph shows 2016 statistics, that only about 5 percent of Americans, 16 years old and older, actually hunt, which is half of what it was 50 years ago. The decline in popularity of hunting is expected to accelerate over the next decade, which threatens how US will pay for conservation.^[73]

Controversy[edit]

Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or endangered animals.^[74] Opponents may also see trophy hunting as an issue of morality^[75] or animal cruelty, criticising the killing of living creatures for recreation. Victorian era dramatist W. S. Gilbert remarked, 'Deer-stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns.'^[76]

There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the local economy. Hunters argue that fees paid contribute to the local economy and provide value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops.^[77] This analysis is disputed by many conservationist organizations and other opponents of trophy hunting.^[78][79] It is argued that the animals are worth more to the community for ecotourism than hunting.^[80][81]

Economics[edit]

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A variety of industries benefit from hunting and support hunting on economic grounds. In Tanzania, it is estimated that a safari hunter spends fifty to one hundred times that of the average ecotourist. While the average photo tourist may seek luxury accommodation, the average safari hunter generally stays in tented camps. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the typical ecotourist. Advocates argue that these hunters allow for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities.^{[citation needed]}

In the United Kingdom, the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy. The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around £700 million, and hunting and shooting lobby groups claimed it to be worth over a billion pounds less than ten years later.^{[citation needed]}

Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States, with many companies specialising in hunting equipment or speciality tourism. Many different technologies have been created to assist hunters, even including iPhone applications. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over thirteen million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting, and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport.^[82] In the US, proceeds from hunting licenses contribute to state game management programs, including preservation of wildlife habitat.

Environmental problems[edit]

Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass could become a toxicant in the environment but lead in ammunition because of its metallic form has a lower solubility and higher resistance to corrosion than other forms of lead making it hardly available to biological systems.^[83] Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison themselves with the neurotoxicant, but studies have demonstrated that effects of lead in ammunition are negligible on animal population size and growth.^[84][85] Since 1991, US federal law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts, and 30 states have some type of restriction.^[86]

In December 2014, a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the EPA must use the Toxic Substances Control Act to regulate lead in shells and cartridges. The groups sought EPA to regulate 'spent lead', yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent lead without also regulating cartridges and shells.^[87]

Conservation[edit]

Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure the preservation of wildlife habitats and wildlife for further hunting.^[88] However, excessive hunting and poachers have also contributed heavily to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals, such as the quagga, the great auk, Steller's sea cow, the thylacine, the bluebuck, the Arabian oryx, the Caspian and Javan tigers, the markhor, the Sumatran rhinoceros, the bison, the North American cougar, the Altai argali sheep, the Asian elephant and many more, primarily for commercial sale or sport. All these animals have been hunted to endangerment or extinction.^[100] Poaching currently threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world.^{[101][102][103]}

Legislation[edit]

Pittman–Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937[edit]

In 1937, American hunters successfully lobbied the US Congress to pass the Pittman-Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act, which placed an eleven percent tax on all hunting equipment. This self-imposed tax now generates over $700 million each year and is used exclusively to establish, restore and protect wildlife habitats.^[104] The act is named for Nevada Senator Key Pittman and Virginia Congressman Absalom Willis Robertson.

Federal Duck Stamp program[edit]

On 16 March 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, which requires an annual stamp purchase by all hunters over the age of sixteen. The stamps are created on behalf of the program by the US Postal Service and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest. They play an important role in habitat conservation because ninety-eight percent of all funds generated by their sale go directly toward the purchase or lease of wetland habitat for protection in the National Wildlife Refuge System.^{[citation needed]} In addition to waterfowl, it is estimated that one third of the nation's endangered species seek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds.^{[citation needed]}

Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated $670 million, and helped to purchase or lease 5,200,000 acres (8,100 sq mi; 21,000 km²) of habitat. The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds, an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas, and are also considered collectors items often purchased for aesthetic reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities. Although non-hunters buy a significant number of Duck Stamps, eighty-seven percent of their sales are contributed by hunters, which is logical, as hunters are required to purchase them. Distribution of funds is managed by the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission (MBCC).^[105]

Species[edit]

Arabian oryx[edit]

The Arabian oryx, a species of large antelope, once inhabited much of the desert areas of the Middle East.^[94] However, the species' striking appearance made it (along with the closely related scimitar-horned oryx and addax) a popular quarry for sport hunters, especially foreign executives of oil companies working in the region.^{[citation needed]} The use of automobiles and high-powered rifles destroyed their only advantage: speed, and they became extinct in the wild exclusively due to sport hunting in 1972. The scimitar-horned oryx followed suit, while the addax became critically endangered.^[106] However, the Arabian oryx has now made a comeback and been upgraded from 'extinct in the wild' to 'vulnerable' due to conservation efforts like captive breeding^[107]

Markhor[edit]

The markhor is an endangered species of wild goat which inhabits the mountains of Central Asia and Pakistan. The colonization of these regions by Britain gave British sport hunters access to the species, and they were hunted heavily, almost to the point of extinction. Only their willingness to breed in captivity and the inhospitability of their mountainous habitat prevented this. Despite these factors, the markhor is still endangered.^[108]

American bison[edit]

The American bison is a large bovid which inhabited much of western North America prior to the 1800s, living on the prairies in large herds. However, the vast herds of bison attracted market hunters, who killed dozens of bison for their hides only, leaving the rest to rot. Thousands of these hunters quickly eliminated the bison herds, bringing the population from several million in the early 1800s to a few hundred by the 1880s. Conservation efforts have allowed the population to increase, but the bison remains near-threatened due to lack of habitat.^[109]

White rhino[edit]

The Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy cites that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands. As a result, the country saw an increase in white rhinos from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11,000, even while a limited number were killed as trophies.^[110]

However, the illegal hunting of rhinoceros for their horns is highly damaging to the population and is currently growing globally,^[111] with 1004 being killed in South Africa alone according to the most recent estimate.^[112]

Other species[edit]

According to Richard Conniff, Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting of various species. Namibia's mountain zebra population has increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which 'are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory', have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995. Lions, which were on the brink of extinction 'from Senegal to Kenya', are increasing in Namibia.^[113]

In contrast, Botswana has recently been forced to ban trophy hunting following a precipitous wildlife decline.^[114] The numbers of antelope plummeted across Botswana, with a resultant decline in predator numbers, while elephant numbers remained stable and hippopotamus numbers rose. According to the government of Botswana, trophy hunting is at least partly to blame for this, but many other factors, such as poaching, drought and habitat loss are also to blame.^[115] Uganda recently did the same, arguing that 'the share of benefits of sport hunting were lopsided and unlikely to deter poaching or improve [Uganda's] capacity to manage the wildlife reserves.'^[116]

Studies[edit]

A study issued by the Wildlife Society concluded that hunting and trapping are cost effective tools that reduce wildlife damage by reducing a population below the capacity of the environment to carry it and changing the behaviors of animals to stop them from causing damage. The study furthermore states that the cessation of hunting could cause wildlife to be severely harmed, rural property values to fall, and the incentive of landowners to maintain natural habitats to diminish.^[117]

Opposition to hunting[edit]

Animal rights activists argue that killing animals for 'sport' is unethical, cruel, and unnecessary.^[4] They note the suffering and cruelty inflicted on animals hunted for 'sport': 'Many animals endure prolonged, painful deaths when they are injured but not killed by hunters [..] Hunting disrupts migration and hibernation patterns and destroys families.'^[4] Animal rights activists also argue that hunting is not needed in order to maintain an ecological balance, and that 'nature takes care of its own'.^[4] They say that hunting can be combated on public lands by 'spread deer repellent or human hair (from barber shops) near hunting areas'.^[4] Animal rights activists also argue that hunting is speciesist:^[5]

'Whether hunters try to justify their killing by citing human deaths caused by wild animals, by making conservationist claims, by claiming that it’s acceptable to hunt as long as the animals’ bodies are eaten, or simply because of the pleasure it brings them, the fact remains that hunting is morally unacceptable if we consider the interests of nonhuman animals. Hunted animals endure fear and pain, and then are deprived of their lives. Understanding the injustices of speciesism and the interests of nonhuman animals makes it clear that human pleasure cannot justify nonhuman animals’ pain.'^[5]

Hunting in the arts[edit]

• Hunting of deer and ibex, Minoanlarnax, prepalatial period

• Hunting in the papyrus thicket, mural from a tomb in Thebes, Egypt, before 1350 BC

• The Stag hunt mosaic, c. 300 BC, Pella, Greece

• Man hunting a boar, Roman mosaic, 4th century AD

• Illustration from the falconry book De arte venandi cum avibus written by Emperor Frederick II, c. 1245

• Giovanni di Francesco (?),
  La caccia, c. 1455, tempera on wood, detail

• Paolo Uccello, Caccia notturna (The Hunt in the Forest), c. 1475

• Vittore Carpaccio, Caccia in laguna (Hunt in the Lagoon), c. 1490

  

• Piero di Cosimo,
  A Hunting Scene, 1508

• Lucas Cranach the Elder, A Stag Hunt with the Elector Friedrich the Wise, 1529

• Peter Paul Rubens, Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt, c. 1615

• Peter Paul Rubens, Tiger and Lion Hunt, 1618

• Peter Paul Rubens, A Forest at Dawn with a Deer Hunt, c. 1635

• Charles André van Loo, Halte de chasse (Halt During the Hunt), 1737

• Francisco Goya, The Quail Shoot, 1775

• Gustave Courbet, Biche morte (Dead hind), 1857

• Gustave Courbet, The Hunt Breakfast, 1858

• Eugène Delacroix, Chasse au lion (Lion Hunt), 1858

• Gustave Courbet, Après la chasse (After the Hunt), 1859

• Edouard Manet, Portrait de M. Pertuiset, le chasseur de lions (Mister Pertuiset, The Lion Hunter), 1881

See also[edit]

• Hunt Saboteurs Association (HSA)
• Tapetum lucidum eyeshine

References[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

• International Journal of Environmental Studies (2013) Special Edition: Conservation and Hunting in North America. IJES v 70. http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/genv20/70/3
• International Journal of Environmental Studies (2015) Special Edition: Conservation and Hunting in North America II. IJES v72. http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/genv20/72/5
• IUCN (2016) Briefing Paper: Informing Decisions on Trophy Hunting. Online at http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_informingdecisionsontrophyhuntingv1.pdf
• IUCN Species Survival Commission (2012) Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives. Online at https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_ssc_guiding_principles_on_trophy_hunting_ver1_09aug2012.pdf
• Dickson D. Bruce Jr., Mississippi Quarterly (Spring 1977).
• Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor and Slavery: Lies, Duels, Noses, Masks, Dressing as a Woman, Gifts, Strangers, Humanitarianism, Death, Slave Rebellions, the Pro-Slavery Argument, Baseball, Hunting, and Gambling in the Old South (1996).
• Steven Hahn, Radical History Review (1982).
• Charles H. Hudson Jr., in Indians, Animals, and the Fur Trade, ed., Shephard Krech III (1981).
• Stuart A. Marks, Southern Hunting in Black and White: Nature, History, and Ritual in a Carolina Community (1991).
• Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865–1920 (1990).
• Wiley C. Prewitt, 'The Best of All Breathing: Hunting and Environmental Change in Mississippi, 1900–1980' M.A. thesis, (1991).
• Nicolas W. Proctor, Bathed in Blood: Hunting and Mastery in the Old South (2002).
• Jacob F. Rivers III, Cultural Values in the Southern Sporting Narrative (2002).
• Salem, D.J., and A.N. Rowan, eds. 2003. The State of the Animals II: 2003. Washington, D.C.: Humane Society Press. (ISBN0-9658942-7-4)
• Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800 (1990).
• Richard C. Stedman and Thomas A. Heberlein, Rural Sociology (2001).
• Nancy L. Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (1996).
• Marek Zukow-Karczewski, Polowania w dawnej Polsce (Hunting in the old Poland), 'AURA' (A Monthly for the protection and shaping of human environment) 12 (1990).

External links[edit]

• Media related to Hunting in Styria at Wikimedia Commons
• The Theodore Roosevelt Hunting Library at the Library of Congress has 254 items on this topic.