fullpacdigi

• Cambridge Ancient History Volume 6 Pdf Portugues
• Cambridge Ancient History Volume 6 Pdf Portfolio

The Lower Paleolithic era in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria began roughly half a million years ago.^[1][2][3] The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BCE, and the Neolithic period began after 6000 BCE, followed by the Bronze Age by 2000 BCE,^[4][5][6] and the Iron Age around 700 BCE.

According to the mythic account recounted in the Samguk yusa, the Gojoseon (Old Joseon) kingdom was founded in northern Korea and southern Manchuria in 2333 BCE.^[7][8][9]

The Gija Joseon state was purportedly founded in 12th century BCE. Its existence and role has been controversial in the modern era, and seen as likely mythology.^[10] The first written historical record on Gojoseon can be found from the early 7th century BCE.^[11][12] The Jin state was formed in southern Korea by the 3rd century BCE. In the 2nd century BCE, Gija Joseon was replaced by Wiman Joseon, which fell to the Han dynasty of China near the end of the century. This resulted in the fall of Gojoseon and led to succeeding warring states, the Proto–Three Kingdoms period that spanned the later Iron Age.

These volumes werefirstplanned before the decision was taken to produce a new edition of the first volume of The Cambridge Medieval History; however. Another victim is likely to have been the Caesar's tutor, the eminent Gallic rhetor Aemilius Magnus Arborius.6 Julian himself and his older half-brother Gallus, who was.

From the 1st century, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla grew to control the peninsula and Manchuria as the Three Kingdoms of Korea (57 BCE–668 CE), until unification by Silla in 676. In 698, Go of Balhae established the Kingdom of Balhae (c.f. modern Bohai Sea) in old territories of Goguryeo,^[13][14] which led to the North–South States Period (698–926) of Balhae and Silla coexisting.

In the late 9th century, Silla was divided into the Later Three Kingdoms (892–936), which ended with the unification by Wang Geon's Goryeo dynasty. Meanwhile, Balhae fell after invasions by the KhitanLiao dynasty and the refugees including the last crown prince emigrated to Goryeo, where the crown prince was warmly welcomed and included into the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo.^[15][16] During the Goryeo period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and culture influenced by Buddhism flourished. However, Mongol invasions in the 13th century brought Goryeo under its influence until the mid-14th century.^[17][18]

In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) after a coup d'état that overthrew the Goryeo dynasty in 1388. King Sejong the Great (1418–1450) implemented numerous administrative, social, scientific, and economic reforms, established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty, and personally created Hangul, the Korean alphabet.

After enjoying a period of peace for nearly two centuries, the Joseon dynasty faced foreign invasions and internal factional strife from 1592 to 1637. Most notable of these invasions is the Japanese invasions of Korea, which marked the end of the Joseon dynasty's early period. The combined force of Ming dynasty of China and the Joseon dynasty repelled these Japanese invasions, but at cost to the countries. Henceforth, Joseon gradually became more and more isolationist and stagnant. By the mid 19th century, with the country unwilling to modernize, and under encroachment of European powers, Joseon Korea was forced to sign unequal treaties with foreign powers. After the assassination of Empress Myeongseong in 1895, the Donghak Peasant Revolution, and the Gabo Reforms of 1894 to 1896, the Korean Empire (1897–1910) came into existence, heralding a brief but rapid period of social reform and modernization. However, in 1905, the Korean Empire signed a protectorate treaty and in 1910, Japan annexed the Korean Empire.

Korean resistance manifested in the widespread nonviolent March 1st Movement of 1919. Thereafter the resistance movements, coordinated by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in exile, became largely active in neighboring Manchuria, China, and Siberia, influenced by Korea's peaceful demonstrations. Figures from these exile organizations would become important in post-WWII Korea.

After the end of World War II in 1945, the Allies divided the country into a northern area (protected by the Soviets) and a southern area (protected primarily by the United States). In 1948, when the powers failed to agree on the formation of a single government, this partition became the modern states of North and South Korea. The peninsula was divided at the 38th Parallel: the 'Republic of Korea' was created in the south, with the backing of the US and Western Europe, and the 'Democratic People's Republic of Korea' in the north, with the backing of the Soviets and the communist People's Republic of China. The new premier of North Korea, Kim il-Sung, launched the Korean War in 1950 in an attempt to reunify the country under Communist rule. After immense material and human destruction, the conflict ended with a cease-fire in 1953. In 2018, the two nations agreed to work toward a final settlement to formally end the Korean War. In 1991, both states were accepted into the United Nations.

While both countries were essentially under military rule after the war, South Korea eventually liberalized. Since 1987 it has had a competitive electoral system. The South Korean economy has prospered, and the country is now considered to be fully developed, with a similar capital economic standing to Western Europe, Japan, and the United States.

North Korea has maintained totalitarianmilitarized rule, with a personality cult constructed around the Kim family. Economically, North Korea has remained heavily dependent on foreign aid. Following the end of the Soviet Union, that aid collapsed precipitously. The country's economic situation has been quite marginal since.

• 1Prehistoric and Antiquity period
  • 1.3Gojoseon and Jin state
  • 1.4Proto–Three Kingdoms
• 2Three Kingdoms of Korea
• 3North and South States
• 5Joseon Dynasty of Korea
• 6Modern history
• 9Bibliography

Prehistoric and Antiquity period[edit]

Paleolithic[edit]

No fossil proven to be Homo erectus has been found in the Korean Peninsula,^[19] though a candidate has been reported.^[2] Tool-making artifacts from the Palaeolithic period have been found in present-day North Hamgyong, South Pyongan, Gyeonggi, and north and south Chungcheong Provinces of Korea,^[20] which dates the Paleolithic Age to half a million years ago,^[5] though it may have begun as late as 400,000 years ago^[1] or as early as 600,000–700,000 years ago.^[2][3]

Neolithic[edit]

The earliest known Korean pottery dates back to around 8000 BCE,^[21] and evidence of MesolithicPit–Comb Ware culture (or Yunggimun pottery) is found throughout the peninsula, such as in Jeju Island. Jeulmun pottery, or 'comb-pattern pottery', is found after 7000 BCE, and is concentrated at sites in west-central regions of the Korean Peninsula, where a number of prehistoric settlements, such as Amsa-dong, existed. Jeulmun pottery bears basic design and form similarities to that of Mongolia, the Amur and Sungari river basins of Manchuria, the Jōmon culture in Japan, and the Baiyue in Southern China and Southeast Asia.^[22][23]

Archaeological evidence demonstrates that agricultural societies and the earliest forms of social-political complexity emerged in the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500–300 BCE).^[24]

People in southern Korea adopted intensive dry-field and paddy-field agriculture with a multitude of crops in the Early Mumun Period (1500–850 BCE). The first societies led by big-men or chiefs emerged in the Middle Mumun (850–550 BC), and the first ostentatious elite burials can be traced to the Late Mumun (c. 550–300 BCE). Bronze production began in the Middle Mumun and became increasingly important in ceremonial and political society after 700 BCE. Archeological evidence from Songguk-ri, Daepyeong, Igeum-dong, and elsewhere indicate that the Mumun era was the first in which chiefdoms rose, expanded, and collapsed. The increasing presence of long-distance trade, an increase in local conflicts, and the introduction of bronze and iron metallurgy are trends denoting the end of the Mumun around 300 BCE.^[24]

Gojoseon and Jin state[edit]

Gojoseon[edit]

Gojoseon was the first Korean kingdom, located in the north of the peninsula and Manchuria, later alongside the state of Jin in the south of the peninsula.

The founding legend of Gojoseon, which is recorded in the Samguk Yusa (1281) and other medieval Korean books,^[25] states that the country was established in 2333 BCE by Dangun, said to be descended from heaven.^[26] While no evidence has been found that supports whatever facts may lie beneath this,^[27][28] the account has played an important role in developing Korean national identity.In the 12th century BCE, Gija, a prince from the Shang dynasty of China, purportedly founded Gija Joseon. However, due to contradicting historical and archaeological evidence, its existence was challenged in the 20th century, and today no longer forms the mainstream understanding of this period.

The historical Gojoseon kingdom was first mentioned in Chinese records in the early 7th century BCE.^[11][12] By about the 4th century BCE, Gojoseon had developed to the point where its existence was well known in China,^[29][30] and around this time, its capital moved to Pyongyang.^[31][32]

In 195 BCE, Jun of Gojoseon appointed a refugee from Yan, Wiman.^[33] Wiman later rebelled in 194 BCE, and Jun fled to the south of the Korean Peninsula.^[34] In 108 BCE, the Han dynasty defeated Wiman Joseon and installed four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades, but the Lelang commandery remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties for four centuries, until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313.

Jin state[edit]

Around 300 BCE, a state called Jin arose in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about Jin, but it established relations with Han China and exported artifacts to the Yayoi of Japan.^[35][36][37] Around 100 BCE, Jin evolved into the Samhan confederacies.^[38]

Several linguists, including Alexander Vovin and Juha Janhunen, suggest that Japonic languages were spoken in large parts of the southern Korean Peninsula. According to Vovin, these 'Peninsular Japonic languages' were replaced by Koreanic-speakers (possibly belonging to the Han-branch). Thus it is possible that the Jin-language was related to Japanese.^[39] Janhunen also suggests that early Baekje was still predominantly Japonic-speaking before they got replaced or assimilated into the new Korean society.^[40]

Metallurgy[edit]

The Bronze Age is often held to have begun around 900-800 BCE in Korea,^[5] though the transition to the Bronze Age may have begun as far back as 2300 BCE.^[6] Bronze daggers, mirrors, jewelry, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of walled-town polities. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular pit-houses and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula.^[43] Contemporaneous records suggest that Gojoseon transitioned from a feudal federation of walled cities into a centralised kingdom at least before the 4th-century BCE.^[44] It is believed that by the 4th century BCE, iron culture was developing in Korea by northern influence via today's Russia's Maritime Province.^[45][46]

Proto–Three Kingdoms[edit]

The Proto-Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Several States Period (열국시대),^[47] is the time before the rise of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which included Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje, and occurred after the fall of Gojoseon. This time period consisted of numerous states that sprang up from the former territories of Gojoseon. Among these states, the largest and most influential were Dongbuyeo and Bukbuyeo.

Buyeo and other Northern states[edit]

After the fall of Gojoseon, Buyeo arose in today's North Korea and southern Manchuria, from about the 2nd century BCE to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by Goguryeo in 494, and both Goguryeo and Baekje, two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, considered themselves its successor.^[48]

Although records are sparse and contradictory, it is thought that in 86 BCE, Dongbuyeo (East Buyeo) branched out, after which the original Buyeo is sometimes referred to as Bukbuyeo (North Buyeo). Jolbon Buyeo was the predecessor to Goguryeo, and in 538, Baekje renamed itself Nambuyeo (South Buyeo).^[49]

Okjeo was a tribal-state that was located in the northern Korean Peninsula, and was established after the fall of Gojoseon. Okjeo had been a part of Gojoseon before its fall. It never became a fully developed kingdom due to the intervention of its neighboring kingdoms. Okjeo became a tributary of Goguryeo, and was eventually annexed into Goguryeo by Gwanggaeto Taewang in the 5th century.^[50]

Dongye was another small kingdom that was situated in the northern Korean Peninsula. Dongye bordered Okjeo, and the two kingdoms faced the same fate of becoming tributaries of the growing empire of Goguryeo. Dongye was also a former part of Gojoseon before its fall.^[51]

Samhan[edit]

Sam-han (삼한, 三韓) refers to the three confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. The Samhan were located in the southern region of the Korean Peninsula.^[52] The Samhan countries were strictly governed by law, with religion playing an important role. Mahan was the largest, consisting of 54 states, and assumed political, economic, and cultural dominance. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of 12 states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. The Samhan were eventually conquered by Baekje, Silla, and Gaya in the 4th century.^[53]

Three Kingdoms of Korea[edit]

Goguryeo[edit]

Goguryeo was founded in 37 BCE by Jumong (posthumously titled as Dongmyeongseong, a royal given title).^[54] Later, King Taejo centralized the government. Goguryeo was the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism as the state religion in 372, in King Sosurim's reign.^[55][56]

Goguryeo (also spelled as Koguryŏ) was also known as Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ), and it eventually became the source of the modern name of Korea.^[57]

Goguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei Wars in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, Cao Wei of the Three Kingdoms of China responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. Hwando was destroyed in revenge by Cao Wei forces in 244.^[58] The invasions sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the other tribes of Korea that formed much of Goguryeo's economy. Although the king evaded capture and eventually settled in a new capital, Goguryeo was reduced to such insignificance that for half a century there was no mention of the state in Chinese historical texts.^[59]

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 5th century, becoming a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia,^{[60][61][62][63]} when Gwanggaeto the Great and his son, Jangsu, expanded the country into almost all of Manchuria, parts of Inner Mongolia,^[64] parts of Russia,^[65] and took the present-day city of Seoul from Baekje.^[64] Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto and Jangsu,^{[66][67][68][69]} who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most dominant power of the Korean peninsula.^[70][56][71] Jangsu's long reign of 79 years saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements.^[72]

Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state;^[73][74] in addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many military conflicts with various Chinese dynasties,^[75] most notably the Goguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force traditionally said to number over a million men,^{[note 2]} and contributed to the Sui dynasty's fall.^{[76][77][78][79][80]}

In 642, the powerful general Yeon Gaesomun led a coup and gained complete control over Goguryeo. In response, Emperor Tang Taizong of China led a campaign against Goguryeo, but was defeated and retreated.^{[81][82][83][84]} After the death of Tang Taizong, his son Emperor Tang Gaozong allied with the Korean kingdom of Silla and invaded Goguryeo again, but was unable to overcome Goguryeo's stalwart defenses and was defeated in 662.^[85][86] However, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause in 666 and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother,^[87][88] with his eldest son defecting to Tang and his younger brother defecting to Silla.^[89] The Tang–Silla alliance mounted a fresh invasion in 667, aided by the defector Yeon Namsaeng, and was finally able to conquer Goguryeo in 668.^[90][91]

After the collapse of Goguryeo, Tang and Silla ended their alliance and fought over control of the Korean Peninsula. Silla succeeded in gaining control over most of the Korean Peninsula, while Tang gained control over Goguryeo's northern territories. However, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo, a Goguryeo general by the name of Dae Joyeong founded the Korean-Mohe state of Balhae and successfully expelled the Tang presence from much of the former Goguryeo territories.

Baekje[edit]

Baekje was founded by Onjo, a Goguryeo prince and the third son of the founder of Goguryeo, in 18 BCE.^[92] Baekje and Goguryeo shared founding myths and originated from Buyeo.^[93] The Sanguo Zhi mentions Baekje as a member of the Mahan confederacy in the Han River basin (near present-day Seoul). It expanded into the southwest (Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces) of the peninsula and became a significant political and military power. In the process, Baekje came into fierce confrontation with Goguryeo and the Chinese commanderies in the vicinity of its territorial ambitions.

At its peak in the 4th century during the reign of King Geunchogo, Baekje absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the modern provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong, and Jeolla, as well as part of Hwanghae and Gangwon) to a centralized government. Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through maritime contacts with the Southern dynasties during the expansion of its territory.^[94]

Baekje was a great maritime power;^[95] its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan.^[96][97] Baekje played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural developments, such as Chinese characters, Buddhism, iron-making, advanced pottery, and ceremonial burial to ancient Japan.^{[63][98][99][100][101][102][103]} Other aspects of culture were also transmitted when the Baekje court retreated to Japan after Baekje was conquered by the Silla–Tang alliance.

Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo,^[104] but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.^{[105][self-published source]} Ultimately, Baekje was defeated by a coalition of Silla and Tang forces in 660.^[106]

Silla[edit]

According to legend, the kingdom of Silla began with the unification of six chiefdoms of the Jinhan confederacy by Bak Hyeokgeose in 57 BCE, in the southeastern area of Korea. Its territory included the present-day port city of Busan, and Silla later emerged as a sea power responsible for destroying Japanese pirates, especially during the Unified Silla period.^[107]

Silla artifacts, including unique gold metalwork, show influence from the northern nomadic steppes and Iranian peoples and especially Persians , with less Chinese influence than are shown by Goguryeo and Baekje.^[108] Silla expanded rapidly by occupying the Nakdong River basin and uniting the city-states.

By the 2nd century, Silla was a large state, occupying and influencing nearby city-states. Silla gained further power when it annexed the Gaya confederacy in 562. Silla often faced pressure from Goguryeo, Baekje and Japan, and at various times allied and warred with Baekje and Goguryeo.

Silla was the smallest and weakest of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.^[109][110]

In 660, King Muyeol of Silla ordered his armies to attack Baekje. General Kim Yu-shin, aided by Tang forces, conquered Baekje. In 661, Silla and Tang moved on Goguryeo but were repelled. King Munmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of Kim, launched another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.^[111]

Gaya[edit]

Gaya was a confederacy of small kingdoms in the Nakdong River valley of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period. Gaya's plains were rich in iron, so export of iron tools was possible and agriculture flourished. In the early centuries, the Confederacy was led by Geumgwan Gaya in the Gimhae region. However, its leading power changed to Daegaya in the Goryeong region after the 5th century.

Constantly engaged in war with the three kingdoms surrounding it, Gaya was not developed to form a unified state, and was ultimately absorbed into Silla in 562.^[112]

North and South States[edit]

The term North-South States refers to Later Silla and Balhae, during the time when Silla controlled the majority of the Korean peninsula while Balhae expanded into Manchuria. During this time, culture and technology significantly advanced, especially in Later Silla.

Later Silla[edit]

After the unification wars, the Tang dynasty established outposts in the former Goguryeo, and began to establish and administer communities in Baekje. Silla attacked Tang forces in Baekje and northern Korea in 671. Tang then invaded Silla in 674 but Silla drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula by 676 to achieve unification of most of the Korean peninsula.^[113]

Later Silla was a golden age of art and culture.^{[114][115][116][117]} During this period, long-distance trade between Later Silla and the Abbasid Caliphate was documented by Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh in the Book of Roads and Kingdoms.^[118] Buddhist monasteries such as the World Heritage SitesBulguksa temple and Seokguram Grotto are examples of advanced Korean architecture and Buddhist influence.^[119] Other state-sponsored art and architecture from this period include Hwangnyongsa Temple and Bunhwangsa Temple. Persian chronics described Silla as located at the eastern end of China and reads 'In this beautiful country Silla, there is much gold, majestetic cities and hardworking people. Their culture is comparable with Persia'.^[120]

Later Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia,^[121] and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River.^{[122][123][124][125]} Later Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country,^[126] and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju^[127] was the fourth largest city in the world.^{[128][129][130][131]}

Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists^[132] and contributed to Chinese Buddhism,^[133] including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang,^{[134][135][136][137]} and Kim Gyo-gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism.^{[138][139][140][141][142]}

Silla began to experience political troubles in late 8th century. This severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendants of the former Baekje established Hubaekje. In the north, rebels revived Goguryeo, beginning the Later Three Kingdoms period.

Later Silla lasted for 267 years until King Gyeongsun surrendered the country to Goryeo in 935, after 992 years and 56 monarchs.^[143]

Balhae[edit]

Balhae was founded only thirty years after Goguryeo had fallen, in 698. It was founded in the northern part of former lands of Goguryeo by Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general^[144][145] or chief of Sumo Mohe.^{[146][147][148]} Balhae controlled the northern areas of the Korean Peninsula, much of Manchuria (though it didn't occupy Liaodong peninsula for much of history), and expanded into present-day Russian Primorsky Krai. Balhae styled itself as Goguryeo's successor state and inherited Goguryeo culture. It also adopted the culture of Tang dynasty, such as the government structure and geopolitical system.^[149]

In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae flourished, especially during the reigns of King Mun and King Seon. Balhae was called the 'Prosperous Country in the East'.^[150] However, Balhae was severely weakened and eventually conquered by the KhitanLiao dynasty in 926.^[149] Large numbers of refugees, including Dae Gwang-hyeon, the last crown prince of Balhae, were welcomed by Goryeo.^[15][151]Dae Gwang-hyeon was included in the imperial family of Wang Geon, bringing a national unification between the two successor nations of Goguryeo.^[16]

No historical records from Balhae have survived, and the Liao left no histories of Balhae. While Goryeo absorbed some Balhae territory and received Balhae refugees, it compiled no known histories of Balhae either. The Samguk Sagi ('History of the Three Kingdoms'), for instance, includes passages on Balhae, but does not include a dynastic history of Balhae. The 18th century Joseon dynasty historian Yu Deukgong advocated the proper study of Balhae as part of Korean history, and coined the term 'North and South States Period' to refer to this era.^[149]

Later Three Kingdoms[edit]

The Later Three Kingdoms period (892 – 936) consisted of Later Silla and the revival of Baekje and Goguryeo, known historiographically as 'Later Baekje' and 'Later Goguryeo'. During the late 9th century, as Silla declined in power and exorbitant taxes were imposed on the people, rebellions erupted nationwide and powerful regional lords rose up against the waning kingdom.^[152]

Later Baekje was founded by the general Gyeon Hwon in 892, and its capital was established in Wansanju (modern Jeonju). The kingdom was based in the southwestern regions in the former territories of Baekje. In 927, Later Baekje attacked Gyeongju, the capital of Later Silla, and placed a puppet on the throne. Eventually, Gyeon Hwon was ousted by his sons due to a succession dispute and escaped to Goryeo, where he served as a general in the conquest of the kingdom he personally founded.^[153]

Later Goguryeo was founded by the Buddhist monk Gung Ye in 901, and its original capital was established in Songak (modern Kaesong). The kingdom was based in the northern regions, which were the strongholds of Goguryeo refugees.^[154][155] Later Goguryeo's name was changed to Majin in 904, and Taebong in 911. In 918, Wang Geon, a prominent general of Goguryeo descent, deposed the increasingly despotic and paranoid Gung Ye, and established Goryeo. By 936, Goryeo conquered its rivals and achieved the unification of the Later Three Kingdoms.^[156]

Goryeo Dynasty of Korea[edit]

Goryeo was founded by Wang Geon in 918 and became the ruling dynasty of Korea by 936. It was named 'Goryeo' because Wang Geon, a descendant of Goguryeo nobility,^[157] deemed the nation as the successor of Goguryeo.^{[158][159][160][161][162][151]} Wang Geon made his hometown Kaesong (in present-day North Korea) the capital. The dynasty lasted until 1392, although the government was controlled by military regime leaders between 1170 and 1270. Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ) is the source of the English name 'Korea'.^[163][164]

During this period, laws were codified and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished and spread throughout the peninsula. The development of celadon pottery flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries.^[165][166] The production of the Tripitaka Koreana onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks,^[167] and the invention of the metal movable type attest to Goryeo's cultural achievements.^{[168][169][170][171][172]}

In 1018, the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time,^[173][174] invaded Goryeo but was defeated by General Gang Gam-chan at the Battle of Kuju to end the Goryeo–Khitan War. After defeating the Khitan Empire, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the Tripitaka Koreana was completed, and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists.^[175][176]

In 1231, the Mongols began their invasions of Korea during seven major campaigns and 39 years of struggle, but was unable to conquer Korea.^[177] Exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent its crown prince to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince,^[177] and for the following 80 years Goryeo existed under the overlordship of the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty in China.^[178][179] The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses,^[177] and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess.^{[180][self-published source]}

In the 1350s, the Yuan dynasty declined rapidly due to internal struggles, enabling King Gongmin to reform the Goryeo government.^[181] Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, including the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars.^[182] During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered Liaoyang in 1356, repulsed two large invasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General Choe Yeong defeated an invading Mongol tumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the Wokou menace and used naval artillery created by Choe Museon to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships.

The Goryeo dynasty would last until 1392. Taejo of Joseon, the founder of the Joseon dynasty, took power in a coup in 1388 and after serving as the power behind the throne for two monarchs, established the Joseon dynasty in 1392.^[183]

Joseon Dynasty of Korea[edit]

Political history[edit]

In 1392, the general Yi Seong-gye, later known as Taejo, established the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897), named in honor of the ancient kingdom Gojoseon,^{[184][12][185]} and based on idealistic Confucianism-based ideology.^[186] The prevailing philosophy throughout the Joseon dynasty was Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by the seonbi class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity.

Taejo moved the capital to Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) and built Gyeongbokgung palace. In 1394 he adopted Neo-Confucianism as the country's official religion, and pursued the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. His son and grandson, King Taejong and Sejong the Great, implemented numerous administrative, social, and economic reforms and established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty.^[187]

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science.^[188] Most notable among them was Sejong the Great (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgated Hangul, the Korean alphabet.^[189] This golden age^[188] saw great cultural and scientific advancements,^[190] including in printing, meteorological observation, astronomy, calendar science, ceramics, military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere.^[191]

Internal conflicts within the royal court, civil unrest and other political struggles plagued the nation in the years that followed, worsened by the Japanese invasion of Korea between 1592 and 1598. Toyotomi Hideyoshi marshalled his forces and tried to invade the Asian continent through Korea, but was eventually repelled by the Korean military, with the assistance of the righteous armies and Chinese Ming dynasty. This war also saw the rise of the career of Admiral Yi Sun-sin with the turtle ship. As Korea was rebuilding, it had to repel invasions by the Manchu in 1627and 1636. Internal politics were bitterly divided and settled by violence.^[192] Historian JaHyun Kim Haboush, in the summary by her editor William Haboush in 2016, interpreted the decisive impact of the victories against the Japanese and Manchu invaders:

Out of this great war at the end of the 16th century and the Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636–1637, Koreans emerged with a discernible sense of themselves as a disethnic united by birth, language, and belief forged by this immense clash of the three great powers of East Asia ... Korea arrived at the brink of the seventeenth century as a nation.^[193]

After the second Manchu invasion and stabilized relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of external peace. However internally, the bitter and violent factional battles raged on. In the 18th century, King Yeongjo (reigned 1724–76) and his grandson King Jeongjo (reigned 1776–1800) led a new renaissance.^[194] Yeongjo and Jeongjo reformed the tax system which grew the revenue stream into the treasury, strengthened the military and sponsored a revival of learning. The printing press was rejuvenated by using movable metal type; the number and quality of publications sharply increased. Jeongjo sponsored scholars from various factions to work in the Kyujanggak, or Inner Royal Library, established in 1776.^[195]

However, corruption in government and social unrest prevailed in the years thereafter, causing numerous civil uprisings and revolts. The government made sweeping reforms in the late 19th century, but adhered to a strict isolationist policy, earning Korea the nickname 'Hermit Kingdom'. The policy had been established primarily for protection against Western imperialism, but soon the Joseon dynasty was forced to open trade, beginning an era leading into Japanese rule.^[196]

Culture and society[edit]

Korea's culture was based on the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism, which emphasizes morality, righteousness, and practical ethics. Wide interest in scholarly study resulted in the establishment of private academies and educational institutions. Many documents were written about history, geography, medicine, and Confucian principles. The arts flourished in painting, calligraphy, music, dance, and ceramics.^[197]

The most notable cultural event of this era is the creation and promulgation of the Korean alphabet Hunmin jeongeom (later called Hangul) by Sejong the Great in 1446.^[189] This period also saw various other cultural, scientific and technological advances.^[198]

During Joseon dynasty, a social hierarchy system existed that greatly affected Korea's social development. The king and the royal family were atop the hereditary system, with the next tier being a class of civil or military officials and landowners known as yangban, who worked for the government and lived off the efforts of tenant farmers and slaves.

A middle class, jungin, were technical specialists such as scribes, medical officers, technicians in science-related fields, artists and musicians. Commoners, i.e. peasants, constituted the largest class in Korea. They had obligations to pay taxes, provide labor, and serve in the military. By paying land taxes to the state, they were allowed to cultivate land and farm. The lowest class included tenant farmers, slaves, entertainers, craftsmen, prostitutes, laborers, shamans, vagabonds, outcasts, and criminals. Although slave status was hereditary, they could be sold or freed at officially set prices, and the mistreatment of slaves was forbidden.^[199]

This yangban focused system started to change in the late 17th century as political, economic and social changes came into place. By the 19th century, new commercial groups emerged, and the active social mobility caused the yangban class to expand, resulting in the weakening of the old class system. The Korea government ordered the freedom of government slaves in 1801. The class system of Korea was completely banned in 1894.^[200]

Foreign invasions[edit]

Korea dealt with a pair of Japanese invasions from 1592 to 1598 (Imjin War or the Seven Years' War). Prior to the war, Korea sent two ambassadors to scout for signs of Japan's intentions of invading Korea. However, they came back with two different reports, and while the politicians split into sides, few proactive measures were taken.

This conflict brought prominence to Admiral Yi Sun-sin as he contributed to eventually repelling the Japanese forces with the innovative use of his turtle ship, a massive, yet swift, ramming/cannon ship fitted with iron spikes.^{[201][202][203]} The use of the hwacha was also highly effective in repelling the Japanese invaders from the land.

Subsequently, Korea was invaded in 1627 and again in 1636 by the Manchus, who went on to conquer China and establish the Qing dynasty, after which the Joseon dynasty recognized Qing suzerainty. Though Joseon respected its traditional subservient position to China, there was persistent loyalty for the perished Ming and disdain for the Manchus, who were regarded as barbarians.

During the 19th century, Joseon tried to control foreign influence by closing its borders to all nations but China. In 1853 the USS South America, an American gunboat, visited Busan for 10 days and had amiable contact with local officials. Several Americans shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Joseon court was aware of the foreign invasions and treaties involving Qing China, as well as the First and Second Opium Wars, and followed a cautious policy of slow exchange with the West.

In 1866, reacting to greater numbers of Korean converts to Catholicism despite several waves of persecutions, the Joseon court clamped down on them, massacring French Catholic missionaries and Korean converts alike. Later in the year France invaded and occupied portions of Ganghwa Island. The Korean army lost heavily, but the French abandoned the island.

The General Sherman, an American-owned armed merchant marine sidewheel schooner, attempted to open Korea to trade in 1866. After an initial miscommunication, the ship sailed upriver and became stranded near Pyongyang. After being ordered to leave by the Korean officials, the American crewmen killed four Korean inhabitants, kidnapped a military officer and engaged in sporadic fighting that continued for four days. After two efforts to destroy the ship failed, she was finally set aflame by Korean fireships laden with explosives.

This incident is celebrated by the DPRK as a precursor to the later USS Pueblo incident.

In response, the United States confronted Korea militarily in 1871, killing 243 Koreans in Ganghwa island before withdrawing. This incident is called the Sinmiyangyo in Korea. Five years later, the reclusive Korea signed a trade treaty with Japan, and in 1882 signed a treaty with the United States, ending centuries of isolationism.

Conflict between the conservative court and a reforming faction led to the Gapsin Coup in 1884. The reformers sought to reform Koreans institutionalized social inequality, by proclaiming social equality and the elimination of the privileges of the yangban class. The reformers were backed by Japan, and were thwarted by the arrival of Qing troops, invited by the conservative Queen Min. The Chinese troops departed but the leading general Yuan Shikai remained in Korea from 1885-1894 as Resident, directing Korean affairs.

In 1885, British Royal Navy occupied Geomun Island, and withdrew in 1887.

Korea became linked by telegraph to China in 1888 with Chinese controlled telegraphs. China permitted Korea to establish embassies with Russia (1884), Italy (1885), France (1886), the United States, and Japan. China attempted to block the exchange of embassies in Western countries, but not with Tokyo. The Qing government provided loans. China promoted its trade in an attempt to block Japanese merchants, which led to Chinese favour in Korean trade. Anti-Chinese riots broke out in 1888 and 1889 and Chinese shops were torched. Japan remained the largest foreign community and largest trading partner.^[204]

After a rapidly modernizing Meiji Japan forced Korea to open its ports in 1876, it successfully challenged the Qing Empire in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), forcing it to abandon its long-standing claims to deference.

In 1895, the Japanese were involved in the murder of Empress Myeongseong,^[205][206] who had sought Russian help, and the Russians were forced to retreat from Korea for the time.

Modern history[edit]

Korean Empire (1897–1910)[edit]

As a result of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki was concluded between China and Japan. It stipulated the abolition of traditional relationships Korea had with China, the latter of which recognised the complete independence of Joseon and repudiated the former's political influence over the area.

In 1897, Joseon was renamed the Korean Empire, and King Gojong became Emperor Gojong. The imperial government aimed to become a strong and independent nation by implementing domestic reforms, strengthening military forces, developing commerce and industry, and surveying land ownership. Organizations like the Independence Club also rallied to assert the rights of the Joseon people, but clashed with the government which proclaimed absolute monarchy and power.^[207]

Russian influence was strong in the Empire until being defeated by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). Korea effectively became a protectorate of Japan on 17 November 1905, the 1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal or commission.^[208][209]

Following the signing of the treaty, many intellectuals and scholars set up various organizations and associations, embarking on movements for independence. In 1907, Gojong was forced to abdicate after Japan learned that he sent secret envoys to the Second Hague Conventions to protest against the protectorate treaty, leading to the accession of Gojong's son, Emperor Sunjong. In 1909, independence activist An Jung-geun assassinated Itō Hirobumi, former Resident-General of Korea, for Ito's intrusions on the Korean politics.^[210][211] This prompted the Japanese to ban all political organisations and proceed with plans for annexation.

Japanese rule (1910–1945)[edit]

In 1910 Japan effectively annexed Korea by the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty. Along with all other prior treaties between Korea and Japan, this was confirmed to be null and void in 1965. While Japan asserts that the treaty was concluded legally, Korea disputes this argument: the treaty was not signed by the Emperor of Korea as required and it violated the international convention on external pressures regarding treaties.^[212][213]

Korea was controlled by Japan under a Governor-General of Korea from 1910 until Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945. De jure sovereignty was deemed to have passed from the Joseon dynasty to the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.^[210]

After the annexation, Japan set out to repress Korean traditions and culture, and to develop and implement policies primarily for the Japanese benefit.^[210] Its officials constructed European-styled transport and communication networks across the nation in order to extract resources and labor. This infrastructure was mostly destroyed later during the Korean War. The banking system was consolidated and the Korean currency abolished. The Japanese removed the Joseon hierarchy, destroyed much of the Gyeongbokgung palace, and replaced it with the government office building.^[214]

After Emperor Gojong died in January 1919, with rumors of poisoning, independence rallies against Japanese invaders took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the March 1st Movement). This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 persons were killed by Japanese soldiers and police.^[215] An estimated 2 million people took part in peaceful, pro-liberation rallies, although Japanese records claim participation of less than half million.^[216] This movement was partly inspired by United States President Woodrow Wilson's speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self-determination and an end to colonial rule after World War I.^[216] No comment was made by Wilson on Korean independence. A pro-Japan faction in the USA sought trade inroads into China through the Korean peninsula.

The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established in Shanghai, China, in the aftermath of the March 1 Movement, which coordinated the Liberation effort and resistance against Japanese control. Some of the achievements of the Provisional Government include the Battle of Chingshanli of 1920 and the ambush of Japanese Military Leadership in China in 1932. The Provisional Government is considered to be the de jure government of the Korean people between 1919 and 1948. Its legitimacy is enshrined in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Korea.^[217]

Continued anti-Japanese uprisings, such as the nationwide uprising of students in November 1929, led to the Japanese strengthening their military rule in 1931. After the outbreaks of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and World War II, Japan attempted to destroy Korea as a nation. The continuance of Korean culture itself began to be illegal. Worship at Japanese Shinto shrines was made compulsory.

The school curriculum was radically modified to eliminate teaching in the Korean language and history.^[210] The Korean language was banned, Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names,^[218] and newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean. Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.^[219] According to an investigation by the South Korean government, 75,311 cultural assets were taken from Korea.^[219][220]

Some Koreans left the Korean peninsula to exile in Manchuria and Primorsky Krai. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as Dongnipgun (Liberation Army); they would travel in and out of the Sino-Korean border, fighting guerrilla warfare with Japanese forces. Some of them would group together in the 1940s as the Korean Liberation Army, which took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands of Koreans also joined the Peoples Liberation Army and the National Revolutionary Army.

During World War II, Koreans at home joined or were forced to support the Japanese war effort. Hundreds of thousands of men were conscripted into Japan's military. Around 200,000 girls and women, many from China and Korea, were forced into sexual slavery for Japanese soldiers, with the euphemism 'comfort women'.

In the early 21st century, former Korean 'comfort women' have continued to protest to the Japanese Government and have sought compensation of their sufferings during the war.^{[221][222][223]}

Religion and ideology[edit]

Korean nationalist historiography, centered on minjok, an ethnically or racially defined Korean nation, emerged in the early twentieth century among Korean intellectuals who wanted to foster national consciousness to achieve Korean independence from Japanese domination. Its first proponent was journalist and independence activist Shin Chaeho (1880–1936). In his polemical New Reading of History (Doksa Sillon), which was published in 1908 three years after Korea became a Japanese protectorate, Shin proclaimed that Korean history was the history of the Korean minjok, a distinct race descended from the god Dangun that had once controlled not only the Korean peninsula but also large parts of Manchuria. Shin and other Korean intellectuals like Park Eun-sik (1859–1925) and Choe Nam-seon (1890–1957) continued to develop these themes in the 1910s and 1920s. They rejected two prior ways of representing the past: the Neo-Confucian historiography of Joseon Korea's scholar-bureaucrats, which they blamed for perpetuating a servile worldview centered around China, and Japanese colonial historiography, which portrayed Korea as historically dependent and culturally backward. The work of these prewar nationalist historians has shaped postwar historiography in both North and South Korea. Despite ideological differences between the two regimes, the dominant historiography in both countries since the 1960s has continued to reflect nationalist themes, and this common historical outlook is the basis for talks about Korean unification.^{[citation needed]}

Protestant Christian missionary efforts in Asia were quite successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. They served as medical and educational missionaries, establishing schools and hospitals in numerous cities. In the years when Korea was under Japanese control, some Koreans adopted Christianity as an expression of nationalism in opposition to the Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion.^[224] In 1914 of 16 million Koreans, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics. By 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000, respectively. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional practices became an issue. The Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary rituals.^[225]

Division and Korean War (1945–1953)[edit]

At the Cairo Conference on November 22, 1943, the US, UK, and China agreed that 'in due course Korea shall become free and independent';^[226][227] at a later meeting in Yalta in February 1945, the Allies agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea.^[228] On August 14, 1945, Soviet forces entered Korea by amphibious landings, enabling them to secure control in the north. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on August 15, 1945.

The unconditional surrender of Japan, combined with fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology, led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones, effectively starting on September 8, 1945. The United States administered the southern half of the peninsula and the Soviet Union took over the area north of the 38th parallel. The Provisional Government was ignored, mainly due to American belief that it was too aligned with the communists.^[229] This division was meant to be temporary and was intended to return a unified Korea back to its people after the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China could arrange a single government.

In December 1945, a conference convened in Moscow to discuss the future of Korea.^[230] A 5-year trusteeship was discussed, and a joint Soviet-American commission was established. The commission met intermittently in Seoul but members deadlocked over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no solution in sight, the United States submitted the Korean question to the United Nations General Assembly. On December 12, 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations recognised the Republic of Korea as the sole legal government of Korea.^[231]

In June 25, 1950, the Korean War broke out when North Korea breached the 38th parallel line to invade the South, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for the time being. After the war, the 1954 Geneva conference failed to adopt a solution for a unified Korea.

Modern Korea (1953–present)[edit]

Beginning with Syngman Rhee, a series of autocratic governments took power in South Korea with American support and influence.

With the coup of General Park Chung-Hee in 1961, a protectionist economic policy began, pushing a bourgeoisie that developed in the shadow of the State to reactivate the internal market. In order to promote development, a policy of industrialization by import substitution was applied, closing the entry into the country of all kinds of foreign products, except raw materials. Nor did they resort to foreign investment. An agrarian reform was carried out with expropriation without compensation of Japanese large estates. General Park nationalized the financial system to swell the powerful state arm, whose intervention in the economy was through five-year plans.^[232]

The spearhead was the chaeboles, those diversified family conglomerates such as Hyundai, Samsung and LG Corporation, which received state incentives such as tax breaks, legality for their hyper-exploitation system and cheap or free financing: the state bank facilitated the planning of concentrated loans by item according to each five-year plan, and by economic group selected to lead it. Until 1961, South Korea received a 3100 million dollar donation from the United States, a very high figure for the time, a privilege for being on the hottest frontier of the Cold War. This policy of foreign economic and military support continued for decades.

Many of those who were the labour force of the South Korean economy working in conditions close to slavery in the 1950s and 1960s, reached old age in misery, as it was only in the 1980s that a retirement regime was created. So much hyperproduction and exploitation generated the highest suicide rate in the developed world (28.1 per 100,000 inhabitants). In 1980, the work week was the longest in the world.^[233]

The country eventually transitioned to become a market-oriented democracy in 1987 largely due to popular demand for reform, and its economy rapidly grew and became a developed economy by the 2000s.

Due to Soviet Influence, North Korea established a communist government with a hereditary succession of leadership, with ties to China and the Soviet Union. Kim Il-sung became the supreme leader until his death in 1994, after which his son, Kim Jong-il took power. Kim Jong-il's son, Kim Jong-un, is the current leader, taking power after his father's death in 2011. After the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, the North Korean economy went on a path of steep decline, and it is currently heavily reliant on international food aid and trade with China.^{[citation needed]}

See also[edit]

• Korean monarchs' family trees: Silla; Goryeo; Joseon

References[edit]

1. ^ ^abEckert & Lee 1990, p. 2
2. ^ ^abcChristopher J. Norton, 'The Current State of Korean Paleoanthropology', (2000), Journal of Human Evolution, 38: 803-825.
3. ^ ^abSin 2005, p. 17
4. ^Eckert & Lee 1990, p. 9
5. ^ ^abcConnor 2002, p. 9
6. ^ ^abJong Chan Kim, Christopher J Bae, 'Radiocarbon Dates Documenting The Neolithic-Bronze Age Transition in Korea'Archived 2012-10-22 at the Wayback Machine, (2010), Radiocarbon, 52: 2, pp. 483-492.
7. ^Sin 2005, p. 19.
8. ^Lee Ki-baik 1984, pp. 14, 167
9. ^Seth 2010, p. 17.
10. ^Hwang 2010, p. 4
11. ^ ^abPeterson & Margulies 2009, p. 6.
12. ^ ^abc(in Korean)Gojoseon at Doosan Encyclopedia
13. ^Pratt 2007, p. 63-64.
14. ^Peterson & Margulies 2009, p. 35-36.
15. ^ ^abKim Jongseo, Jeong Inji, et al. 'Goryeosa (The History of Goryeo)', 1451, Article for July 934, 17th year in the Reign of Taejo
16. ^ ^abLee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 103. ISBN978-0674615762. When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ('Successor of the Royal Wang') on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom.
17. ^Seth, Michael J. (2011). A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present. Landham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 112. ISBN9780742567153. OCLC644646716.
18. ^Kim, Djun Kil (2014). The History of Korea (Second ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 65–68. ISBN9781610695824. OCLC890146633.
19. ^Early Human Evolution: Homo ergaster and erectus Archived 2007-12-19 at the Wayback Machine. Anthro.palomar.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
20. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 8–12.
21. ^Chong Pil Choe, Martin T. Bale, 'Current Perspectives on Settlement, Subsistence, and Cultivation in Prehistoric Korea', (2002), Arctic Anthropology, 39: 1-2, pp. 95-121.
22. ^Stark 2005, p. 137.
23. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 23–26.
24. ^ ^abNelson 1993, pp. 110–116
25. ^See also Jewang Ungi (1287) and Dongguk Tonggam (1485).
26. ^Hwang 2010, p. 2.
27. ^Connor 2002, p. 10.
28. ^
    • Seth, Michael J. (2010). A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 443. ISBN978-0-7425-6717-7.

    'An extreme manifestation of nationalism and the family cult was the revival of interest in Tangun, the mythical founder of the first Korean state... Most textbooks and professional historians, however, treat him as a myth.'

    • Stark, Miriam T. (2008). Archaeology of Asia. John Wiley & Sons. p. 49. ISBN978-1-4051-5303-4.

    'Although Kija may have truly existed as a historical figure, Tangun is more problematical.'

    • Schmid, Andre (2013). Korea Between Empires. Columbia University Press. p. 270. ISBN978-0-231-50630-4.

    'Most [Korean historians] treat the [Tangun] myth as a later creation.'

    • Peterson, Mark (2009). Brief History of Korea. Infobase Publishing. p. 5. ISBN978-1-4381-2738-5.

    'The Tangun myth became more popular with groups that wanted Korea to be independent; the Kija myth was more useful to those who wanted to show that Korea had a strong affinity to China.'

    • Hulbert, H. B. (2014). The History of Korea. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN978-1-317-84941-4.

    'If a choice is to be made between them, one is faced with the fact that the Tangun, with his supernatural origin, is more clearly a mythological figure than Kija.'

29. ^Eckert & Lee 1990, p. 11.
30. ^Lee Ki-baik 1984, p. 14.
31. ^(in Korean)Gojoseon territory at Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
32. ^Timeline of Art and History, Korea, 1000 BC-1 ADArchived 2010-02-07 at the Wayback Machine, Metropolitan Museum of Art
33. ^Academy of Korean Studies, The Review of Korean Studies, vol. 10권,3–4, 2007, p. 222
34. ^Lee Injae, Owen Miller, Park Jinhoon, Yi Hyun-Hae, Korean History in Maps, Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 20
35. ^Yayoi Period History SummaryArchived 2008-07-26 at the Wayback Machine, BookRags.com
36. ^Japanese RootsArchived 2012-05-25 at Archive.today, Jared Diamond, Discover 19:6 (June 1998)
37. ^The Genetic Origins of the JapaneseArchived 2016-02-09 at the Wayback Machine, Thayer Watkins
38. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 92–95.
39. ^Vovin, Alexander (2013). 'From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean'. Korean Linguistics. 15 (2): 222–240.
40. ^Janhunen, Juha (2010). 'RECONSTRUCTING THE LANGUAGE MAP OF PREHISTORICAL NORTHEAST ASIA'. Studia Orientalia 108 (2010). ... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.
41. ^'Early Korea'. Archived from the original on 2015-06-25.
42. ^
    • 매국사학의 몸통들아, 공개토론장으로 나와라!. ngonews. 2015-12-24. Archived from the original on 2016-09-19.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
    • 요서 vs 평양… 한무제가 세운 낙랑군 위치 놓고 열띤 토론. Segye Ilbo. 2016-08-21. Archived from the original on 2017-04-13.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
    • '갈석산 동쪽 요서도 고조선 땅' vs '고고학 증거와 불일치'. The Dong-a Ilbo. 2016-08-22. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
43. ^Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen SitesArchived 2017-02-18 at the Wayback Machine, UNESCO
44. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 82–85.
45. ^'Large-scale 2nd to 3rd century AD bloomery iron smelting in Korea'.
46. ^Wontack Hong, 'The Yemaek Tungus of Central Manchuria and Korean Peninsula: Interactions between the Xianbei and the Yemaek Tungus'
47. ^(in Korean)Proto-Three Kingdoms period at Doosan Encyclopedia
48. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 109–116.
49. ^(in Korean)BuyeoArchived 2012-07-01 at Archive.today at Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
50. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 128–130.
51. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 130–131.
52. ^(in Korean)Samhan at Doosan Encyclopedia
53. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 135–141.
54. ^(in Korean)Goguryeo at Doosan Encyclopedia
55. ^(in Korean)Buddhism in Goguryeo at Doosan Encyclopedia
56. ^ ^abLee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 199–202
57. ^Fan Ye, Book of the Later Han, volume 85; the Dongyi Liezhuan
58. ^Cite error: The named reference tennant was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
59. ^Byington, Mark E. 'Control or Conquer? Koguryǒ's Relations with States and Peoples in Manchuria,'Journal of Northeast Asian History volume 4, number 1 (June 2007):93.
60. ^Roberts, John Morris; Westad, Odd Arne. The History of the World. Oxford University Press. p. 443. ISBN9780199936762. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
61. ^Gardner, Hall. Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 158–159. ISBN9780230608733. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
62. ^Laet, Sigfried J. de. History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. UNESCO. p. 1133. ISBN9789231028137. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
63. ^ ^abWalker, Hugh Dyson. East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. pp. 6–7. ISBN9781477265178. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
64. ^ ^abKim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 35. ISBN978-0253000781. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
65. ^Kotkin, Stephen; Wolff, David (2015-03-04). Rediscovering Russia in Asia: Siberia and the Russian Far East: Siberia and the Russian Far East. Routledge. ISBN9781317461296. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
66. ^Yi, Hyŏn-hŭi; Pak, Sŏng-su; Yun, Nae-hyŏn (2005). New history of Korea. Jimoondang. p. 201. ISBN9788988095850. Archived from the original on 2016-12-04. He launched a military expedition to expand his territory, opening the golden age of Goguryeo.
67. ^Hall, John Whitney (1988). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. p. 362. ISBN9780521223522. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
68. ^Embree, Ainslie Thomas (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history. Scribner. p. 324. ISBN9780684188997. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
69. ^Cohen, Warren I. (2000-12-20). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. p. 50. ISBN9780231502511. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
70. ^Kim, Jinwung (2012-11-05). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 35. ISBN978-0253000781. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
71. ^'Kings and Queens of Korea'. KBS World Radio. Korea Communications Commission. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
72. ^Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 38–40. ISBN978-0674615762.
73. ^Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN9780674615762. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
74. ^Walker, Hugh Dyson (November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 104. ISBN9781477265161. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
75. ^Walker, Hugh Dyson. East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 161. ISBN9781477265178. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
76. ^White, Matthew. Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 78. ISBN9780393081923. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
77. ^Grant, Reg G. 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History. Universe Pub. p. 104. ISBN9780789322333. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
78. ^Bedeski, Robert. Human Security and the Chinese State: Historical Transformations and the Modern Quest for Sovereignty. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN9781134125975. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
79. ^Yi, Ki-baek. A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47. ISBN9780674615762. Archived from the original on December 4, 2016. Retrieved July 29, 2016. Koguryŏ was the first to open hostilities, with a bold assault across the Liao River against Liao-hsi, in 598. The Sui emperor, Wen Ti, launched a retaliatory attack on Koguryŏ but met with reverses and turned back in mid-course. Yang Ti, the next Sui emperor, proceeded in 612 to mount an invasion of unprecedented magnitude, marshalling a huge force said to number over a million men. And when his armies failed to take Liao-tung Fortress (modern Liao-yang), the anchor of Koguryŏ's first line of defense, he had a nearly a third of his forces, some 300,000 strong, break off the battle there and strike directly at the Koguryŏ capital of P'yŏngyang. But the Sui army was lured into a trap by the famed Koguryŏ commander Ŭlchi Mundŏk, and suffered a calamitous defeat at the Salsu (Ch'ŏngch'ŏn) River. It is said that only 2,700 of the 300,000 Sui soldiers who had crossed the Yalu survived to find their way back, and the Sui emperor now lifted the siege of Liao-tung Fortress and withdrew his forces to China proper. Yang Ti continued to send his armies against Koguryŏ but again without success, and before long his war-weakened empire crumbled.
80. ^Nahm, Andrew C. (2005). A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History (Second revised ed.). Seoul: Hollym International Corporation. p. 18. ISBN978-0930878689. China, which had been split into many states since the early 3rd century, was reunified by the Sui dynasty at the end of the 6th century. Soon after that, Sui China mobilized a large number of troops and launched a sagiwar against Koguryŏ. However, the people of Koguryŏ were united and they were able to repel the Chinese aggressors. In 612, Sui troops invaded Korea again, but Koguryŏ forces fought bravely and destroyed Sui troops everywhere. General Ŭlchi Mundŏk of Koguryŏ completely wiped out some 300,000 Sui troops which came across the Yalu River in the battles near the Salsu River (now Ch'ŏngch'ŏn River) with his ingenious military tactics. Only 2,700 Sui troops were able to flee from Korea. The Sui dynasty, which wasted so much energy and manpower in aggressive wars against Koguryŏ, fell in 618.
81. ^Tucker, Spencer C. (2009-12-23). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 406. ISBN9781851096725. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
82. ^Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012-11-20). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 161. ISBN9781477265178. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
83. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 214–222.
84. ^Kim, Jinwung (2012-11-05). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 50. ISBN978-0253000781. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
85. ^Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2012-11-12). Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 486. ISBN9781136639791. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
86. ^Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (2014-12-15). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN9781107098466. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
87. ^Kim, Jinwung (2012-11-05). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 51. ISBN978-0253000781. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
88. ^Kim, Djun Kil (2014-05-30). The History of Korea, 2nd Edition. ABC-CLIO. p. 49. ISBN9781610695824. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
89. ^Yi, Ki-baek. A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 67. ISBN9780674615762. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
90. ^Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 67. ISBN9780674615762. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2016. Loath to let slip such an opportunity, T'ang mounted a fresh invasion under Li Chi in 667 and Silla launched a coordinated offensive. This time the T'ang army received every possible assistance from the defector Namsaeng, and although Koguryŏ continued to hold out for another year, the end finally came in 668.
91. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 224–225.
92. ^Jonathan W. Best, A History of the Early Korean Kingdom of Paekche, together with an annotated translation of 'The Paekche Annals' of the 'Samguk sagi' (Harvard East Asian Monographs, 2007).
93. ^The National Folk Museum of Korea (South Korea) (2014). Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature: Encyclopedia of Korean Folklore and Traditional Culture Vol. III. 길잡이미디어. p. 41. ISBN9788928900848. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
94. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 202–206.
95. ^Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Houghton Mifflin. p. 123. ISBN9780618133840. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
96. ^Kitagawa, Joseph (2013-09-05). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture. Routledge. p. 348. ISBN9781136875908. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
97. ^Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. p. 104. ISBN978-1111808150. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
98. ^Korean Buddhism Basis of Japanese BuddhismArchived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Seoul Times, 2006-06-18
99. ^Buddhist Art of Korea & JapanArchived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Asia Society Museum
100. ^KanjiArchived 2012-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, JapanGuide.com
101. ^Pottery - MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 2009-10-29. 'The pottery of the Yayoi culture (300? BC-AD 250?), made by a Mongol people who came from Korea to Kyūshū, has been found throughout Japan. '
102. ^History of JapanArchived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, JapanVisitor.com
103. ^Archived 2009-10-31.
104. ^A Brief History of Korea. Ewha Womans University Press. January 2005. pp. 29–30. ISBN9788973006199. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
105. ^Yu, Chai-Shin (2012). The New History of Korean Civilization. iUniverse. p. 27. ISBN9781462055593. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
106. ^Baekje historyArchived 2009-02-14 at the Wayback Machine, Baekje History & Culture Hall
107. ^Kenneth B. Lee (1997, pp. 48–49)
108. ^Sarah M. Nelson, (1993, pp. 243–258)
109. ^Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN978-0253000248. Archived from the original on 2016-12-04.
110. ^Wells, Kenneth M. (2015-07-03). Korea: Outline of a Civilisation. BRILL. pp. 18–19. ISBN9789004300057. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
111. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 222–225.
112. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 159–162.
113. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 241–242.
114. ^DuBois, Jill (2004). Korea. Marshall Cavendish. p. 22. ISBN9780761417866. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
115. ^Randel, Don Michael. The Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard University Press. p. 273. ISBN9780674011632. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
116. ^Hopfner, Jonathan. Moon Living Abroad in South Korea. Avalon Travel. p. 21. ISBN9781612386324. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
117. ^Kim, Djun Kil. The History of Korea. ABC-CLIO. p. 47. ISBN9780313038532. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
118. ^Isabella Bird (9 January 2014). '1'. Korea and Her Neighbours.: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the Country. With a Preface by Sir Walter C. Hillier. Adegi Graphics LLC. ISBN978-0-543-01434-4.
119. ^Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa TempleArchived 2016-07-16 at the Wayback Machine, UNESCO
120. ^'Cultural ties put Iran, S Korea closer than ever for cooperation'. Tehran Times. 2016-05-05. Archived from the original on 2017-04-13. Retrieved 2017-04-13.
121. ^Kitagawa, Joseph. The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture. Routledge. p. 348. ISBN9781136875908. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
122. ^Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 291. ISBN9780521497817. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
123. ^Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather. Ennins Travels in Tang China. John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited. pp. 276–283. ISBN9780471070535. Retrieved 21 July 2016. From what Ennin tells us, it seems that commerce between East China, Korea and Japan was, for the most part, in the hands of men from Silla. Here in the relatively dangerous waters on the eastern fringes of the world, they performed the same functions as did the traders of the placid Mediterranean on the western fringes. This is a historical fact of considerable significance but one which has received virtually no attention in the standard historical compilations of that period or in the modern books based on these sources. . . . While there were limits to the influence of the Koreans along the eastern coast of China, there can be no doubt of their dominance over the waters off these shores. . . . The days of Korean maritime dominance in the Far East actually were numbered, but in Ennin's time the men of Silla were still the masters of the seas in their part of the world.
124. ^Kim, Djun Kil. The History of Korea, 2nd Edition. ABC-CLIO. p. 3. ISBN9781610695824. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
125. ^Seth, Michael J. A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65. ISBN9780742540057. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
126. ^MacGregor, Neil. A History of the World in 100 Objects. Penguin UK. ISBN9780141966830. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
127. ^Chŏng, Yang-mo; Smith, Judith G.; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.). Arts of Korea. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 230. ISBN9780870998508. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
128. ^International, Rotary. The Rotarian. Rotary International. p. 28. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
129. ^Ross, Alan. After Pusan. Faber & Faber. ISBN9780571299355. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
130. ^Mason, David A. 'Gyeongju, Korea's treasure house'. Korea.net. Korean Culture and Information Service (KOCIS). Archived from the original on 3 October 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
131. ^Adams, Edward Ben. Koreaʾs pottery heritage. Seoul International Pub. House. p. 53. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
132. ^Mun, Chanju; Green, Ronald S. (2006). Buddhist Exploration of Peace and Justice. Blue Pine Books. p. 147. ISBN9780977755301. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
133. ^McIntire, Suzanne; Burns, William E. (2010-06-25). Speeches in World History. Infobase Publishing. p. 87. ISBN9781438126807. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
134. ^Jr, Robert E. Buswell; Jr, Donald S. Lopez (2013-11-24). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. p. 187. ISBN9781400848058. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
135. ^Poceski, Mario (2007-04-13). Ordinary Mind as the Way: The Hongzhou School and the Growth of Chan Buddhism. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN9780198043201. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
136. ^Wu, Jiang; Chia, Lucille (2015-12-15). Spreading Buddha's Word in East Asia: The Formation and Transformation of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. Columbia University Press. p. 155. ISBN9780231540193. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
137. ^Wright, Dale S. (2004-03-25). The Zen Canon: Understanding the Classic Texts. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780199882182. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
138. ^Su-il, Jeong (2016-07-18). The Silk Road Encyclopedia. Seoul Selection. ISBN9781624120763. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
139. ^Nikaido, Yoshihiro (2015-10-28). Asian Folk Religion and Cultural Interaction. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 137. ISBN9783847004851. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
140. ^Leffman, David; Lewis, Simon; Atiyah, Jeremy (2003). China. Rough Guides. p. 519. ISBN9781843530190. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
141. ^Leffman, David (2014-06-02). The Rough Guide to China. Penguin. ISBN9780241010372. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
142. ^DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: China. Penguin. 2016-06-21. p. 240. ISBN9781465455673. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
143. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 266–269.
144. ^Old records of Silla 新羅古記(Silla gogi): ... 高麗舊將祚榮
145. ^Rhymed Chronicles of Sovereigns 帝王韻紀(Jewang ungi): ... 前麗舊將大祚榮
146. ^Solitary Cloud 孤雲集(Gounjib): ... 渤海之源流也句驪未滅之時本爲疣贅部落靺羯之屬寔繁有徒是名栗末小蕃甞逐句驪, 內徙其首領乞四羽及大祚榮等至武后臨朝之際自營州作孼而逃輒據荒丘始稱振國時有句驪遺燼勿吉雜流梟音則嘯聚白山鴟義則喧張黑姶與契丹濟惡旋於突厥通謀萬里耨苗累拒渡遼之轍十年食葚晚陳降漢之旗.
147. ^Solitary Cloud 孤雲集(Gounjip): ... 其酋長大祚榮, 始受臣藩第五品大阿餐之秩
148. ^Comprehensive Institutions 通典(Tongdian): ... 渤海夲栗末靺鞨至其酋祚榮立國自號震旦, 先天中 玄宗王子始去靺鞨號專稱渤海
149. ^ ^abcLee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 244–248
150. ^Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (2014-12-15). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–65. ISBN9781107098466. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
151. ^ ^abNorth Korea: A Country Study. Government Printing Office. 2011-04-21. p. 12. ISBN9780160882784. Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
152. ^후삼국시대(後三國時代). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
153. ^일리천(一利川)전투. 문화콘텐츠닷컴 (in Korean). Korea Creative Content Agency. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
154. ^이상각 (2014). 고려사 - 열정과 자존의 오백년 (in Korean). 들녘. ISBN9791159250248. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
155. ^'(2) 건국―호족들과의 제휴'. 우리역사넷 (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
156. ^장덕호 (1 March 2015). 한반도 중심에 터 닦으니 화합·통합의 새시대 '활짝'. 중앙일보 (in Korean). JoongAng Ilbo. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
157. ^박, 종기 (2015-08-24). 고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다 (in Korean). 휴머니스트. ISBN9788958629023. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
158. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, p. 266.
159. ^Rossabi, Morris (1983-05-20). China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries. University of California Press. p. 323. ISBN9780520045620. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
160. ^Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 103. ISBN9780674615762. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
161. ^Kim, Djun Kil (2005-01-30). The History of Korea. ABC-CLIO. p. 57. ISBN9780313038532. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
162. ^Grayson, James H. (2013-11-05). Korea - A Religious History. Routledge. p. 79. ISBN9781136869259. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
163. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005a, pp. 120–121.
164. ^(in Korean)Korea at Doosan Encyclopedia
165. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 360–361.
166. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005a, pp. 122–123.
167. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 309–312.
168. ^'Korean Classics : Asian Collections: An Illustrated Guide (Library of Congress - Asian Division)'. Library of Congress. United States Congress. Archived from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
169. ^'Gutenberg Bible'. British Library. The British Library Board. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
170. ^'Korea, 1000–1400 A.D. Chronology Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History The Metropolitan Museum of Art'. The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
171. ^'Movable type - Oxford Reference'. Oxford Reference. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
172. ^Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne (January 2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Cengage Learning. ISBN978-1285528670. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
173. ^Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman (January 2014). The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief: A Global History. Cengage Learning. p. 264. ISBN9781285445519. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
174. ^Cohen, Warren I. (2000-12-20). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. p. 107. ISBN9780231502511. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
175. ^Lee, Kenneth B. (1997). Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 61. ISBN9780275958237. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
176. ^Bowman, John. Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 202. ISBN9780231500043. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
177. ^ ^abcLee, Kenneth B. Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 72. ISBN9780275958237. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
178. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 343–350.
179. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005a, pp. 142–145.
180. ^Currie, Lorenzo. Through the Eyes of the Pack. Xlibris Corporation. p. 181. ISBN9781493145164. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
181. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 351–353.
182. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005a, pp. 152–155.
183. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 369–370.
184. ^Yi, Ki-baek. A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 165. ISBN9780674615762. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
185. ^Literally 'old Joseon', the term was first coined in the 13th century AD to differentiate the ancient kingdom from Wiman Joseon and is now used to differentiate it from the Joseon dynasty.
186. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005a, pp. 160–163.
187. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 371–375.
188. ^ ^abLee, Kenneth B. Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 86. ISBN9780275958237. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
189. ^ ^ab'알고 싶은 한글'. 국립국어원. National Institute of Korean Language. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
190. ^Haralambous, Yannis; Horne, P. Scott. Fonts & Encodings. 'O'Reilly Media, Inc.'. p. 155. ISBN9780596102425. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
191. ^Selin, Helaine. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 505–506. ISBN9789401714167. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
192. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 413–416.
193. ^Foreword by William Haboush, in JaHyun Kim Haboush (2016). The Great East Asian War and the Birth of the Korean Nation. Columbia UP. p. ix.
194. ^A Brief History of Korea. Ewha Womans University Press. ISBN9788973006199. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
195. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 421–424.
196. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 469–470.
197. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 391–401.
198. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005a, pp. 168–173.
199. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 387–389.
200. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, pp. 435–437.
201. ^Hawley 2005, p. 195f.
202. ^Turnbull 2002, p. 244.
203. ^Roh, Young-koo: 'Yi Sun-shin, an Admiral Who Became a Myth', The Review of Korean Studies, Vol. 7, No. 3 (2004), p.13
204. ^Seth 2010, p. 225.
205. ^Schmid 2002, p. 72.
206. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005b, p. 43.
207. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005b, pp. 51-55.
208. ^Association of Korean History Teachers 2005b, pp. 58-61.
209. ^Lee Ki-baik 1984, pp. 309–317.
210. ^ ^abcdHoare & Pares 1988, pp. 50–67
211. ^An Jung-geun, Korea.net
212. ^Kawasaki, Yutaka (July 1996). 'Was the 1910 Annexation Treaty Between Korea and Japan Concluded Legally?'. Murdoch University Journal of Law. 3 (2). Retrieved 2007-06-08.
213. ^Japan's Annexation of Korea 'Unjust and Invalid'Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, Chosun Ilbo, 2010-05-11. Retrieved 2010-07-05.
214. ^(in Korean)After the reconstruction Gyeongbok Palace of 1865–1867 at Doosan Encyclopedia
215. ^'March 1st Movement'. Archived from the original on 2007-12-11.
216. ^ ^abLee Ki-baik, pp. 340–344
217. ^Constitution of the Republic of Korea: PreambleArchived 2012-07-10 at Archive.today, The National Assembly of the Republic of Korea. (In English)
218. ^Miyata 1992.
219. ^ ^abKay Itoi; B. J. Lee (2007-10-17). 'Korea: A Tussle over Treasures — Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan?'. Newsweek. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
220. ^Lost treasures make trip homeArchived 2016-06-09 at the Wayback Machine, Korea Times, 2008-12-28.
221. ^Japan court rules against 'comfort women'Archived 2006-09-22 at the Wayback Machine, CNN, 2001-03-29.
222. ^Congress backs off of wartime Japan rebukeArchived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, The Boston Globe, 2006-10-15.
223. ^'Washington Coalition for Comfort Women Issues, Inc'. Archived from the original on 2009-11-03.
224. ^Danielle Kane, and Jung Mee Park, 'The Puzzle of Korean Christianity: Geopolitical Networks and Religious Conversion in Early Twentieth-Century East Asia', American Journal of Sociology (2009) 115#2 pp 365–404
225. ^Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity: Volume VII: Advance through Storm: A.D. 1914 and after, with concluding generalizations (1945) 7:401–407
226. ^Lee Hyun-hee 2005, p. 581.
227. ^Cairo Conference is heldArchived 2013-04-13 at the Wayback Machine, Timelines; Cairo ConferenceArchived 2011-03-19 at the Wayback Machine, BBC
228. ^'The Avalon Project : Yalta (Crimea) Conference'. Archived from the original on 2016-02-02.
229. ^Robinson 2007, pp. 107–108.
230. ^'Avalon Project - A Decade of American Foreign Policy 1941-1949 - Interim Meeting of Foreign Ministers, Moscow'. Archived from the original on 2009-04-30.
231. ^'Resolution 195, UN Third General Assembly'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 2013-10-23.
232. ^'Corea del Sur no es un milagro Un Estado muy fuerte, industrialización, extrema flexibilización laboral y conglomerados familiares. El papel de EE.UU'.
233. ^'Corea del Sur no es un milagro Un Estado muy fuerte, industrialización, extrema flexibilización laboral y conglomerados familiares. El papel de EE.UU'.

Bibliography[edit]

Surveys[edit]

• Association of Korean History Teachers (2005a). Korea through the Ages, Vol 1 Ancient. Seoul: Academy of Korean Studies. ISBN9788-9710-5545-8.
• Association of Korean History Teachers (2005b). Korea through the Ages, Vol. 2 Modern. Seoul: Academy of Korean Studies. ISBN9788-9710-5546-5.
• Buzo, Adrian. The Making of Modern Korea (Routledge, 2002) online
• Cha M. S.; Kim N. N. 'Korea's first industrial revolution, 1911–1940,' Explorations in Economic History (2012) 49#1 pp 60–74
• Connor, Mary E. (2002). The Koreas, A global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 307. ISBN9781-5760-7277-6.
• Cumings, Bruce. (2005) Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History (2nd ed. W W Norton, 2005).
• Eckert, Carter J.; Lee, Ki-Baik (1990). Korea, old and new: a history. Korea Institute Series. Published for the Korea Institute, Harvard University by Ilchokak. p. 454. ISBN9780-9627-7130-9.
• Hoare, James; Pares, Susan (1988). Korea: an introduction. New York: Routledge. ISBN9780-7103-0299-1.
• Hwang, Kyung-moon (2010). A History of Korea, An Episodic Narrative. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 328. ISBN9780230364530.
• Kim, Chong Ik Eugene; Han-Kyo Kim (1967). Korea and the Politics of Imperialism, 1876-1910.
• Korea National University of Education. Atlas of Korean History (2008)
• Lee Ki-baik (1984). A new history of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard UP. ISBN9780-6746-1576-2.
• Lee, Kenneth B. (1997). Korea and East Asia: the story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN9780-2759-5823-7.
• Lee, Chong-Sik (1963). The Politics of Korean Nationalism (University of California Press), online
• Lee, Yur-Bok and Wayne Patterson. One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882-1982 (1986) online
• Lee, Hyun-hee; Park, Sung-soo; Yoon, Nae-hyun (2005). New History of Korea. Paju: Jimoondang. ISBN9788-9880-9585-0.
• Lee, Hong-yung; Ha, Yong-Chool; Sorensen, Clark W., eds. (2013). Colonial Rule and Social Change in Korea, 1910-1945. U of Washington Press. ISBN9780-2959-9216-7.
• Li, Narangoa and Robert Cribb. Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590-2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia (2016) ISBN0231160704
• Nahm, Andrew C.; Hoare, James (2004). Historical dictionary of the Republic of Korea. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN9780-8108-4949-5.
• Nelson, Sarah M. (1993). The archaeology of Korea. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. p. 1013. ISBN9780-5214-0783-0.
• Pratt, Keith (2007). Everlasting Flower: A History of Korea. Reaktion Books. p. 320. ISBN9781861893352.
• Robinson, Michael Edson (2007). Korea's twentieth-century odyssey. Honolulu: U of Hawaii Press. ISBN9780-8248-3174-5.
• Schmid, Andre (2002). Korea Between Empires, 1895–1919. New York: Columbia UP. ISBN9780-2311-2538-3.
• Seth, Michael J. (2006). A Concise History of Korea. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN9780-7425-4005-7.
• Seth, Michael J. (2010). A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 520. ISBN9780-7425-6716-0.
• Sin, Hyong-sik (2005). A Brief History of Korea. The Spirit of Korean Cultural Roots. 1 (2nd ed.). Seoul: Ewha Womans University Press. ISBN9788-9730-0619-9.
• Yang, Sung-chul (1999). The North and South Korean political systems: A comparative analysis. Seoul: Hollym. ISBN9781-5659-1105-5.

Historiography[edit]

• Em, Henry H. (2013). The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea. Duke University Press. p. 272. ISBN9780-8223-5372-0.
  Examines how Korean national ambitions have shaped the work of the country's historians.
• Hong Sung-gi. 'Trends in Western historiography on Korea,' Korea Journal (1999) 39#3 pp 377
• Kim, Han Kyo. Studies on Korea: A Scholar's Guide (1980); 458pp comprehensive guide; ISBN0824806735
• Kim, Duol, and Ki-Joo Park. ' A Cliometric Revolution in the Economic History of Korea: A Critical Review,' Australian Economic History Review (2012) 52#1 pp 85–95
• Yuh, Leighanne (2010). 'The Historiography of Korea in the United States'. International Journal of Korean History. 15#2: 127–144.

Primary sources[edit]

• Lee, Peter H. and Wm. Theodore De Bary, eds. Sources of Korean Tradition (2 vol. 1997) 472 pages vol 1 online

Other books used in this page[edit]

• Cwiertka, Katarzyna J. (2012). Cuisine, Colonialism, and Cold War: Food in Twentieth-Century Korea. Reaktion Books and University of Chicago Press. p. 237. ISBN9781-7802-3025-2.
  Scholarly study of how food reflects Korea's history

• Hawley, Samuel (2005). The Imjin War. Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China. The Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, Seoul. ISBN978-89-954424-2-5.

• Kim, Byung-Kook; Vogel, Ezra F. (2011). The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 744. ISBN9780-6740-5820-0.
  Studies of on modernization under Park, 1961–1979.

• Peterson, Mark; Margulies, Phillip (2009). A Brief History of Korea. Infobase Publishing. p. 328. ISBN9781-4381-2738-5.

• Stark, Miriam T. (2005). Archaeology Of Asia. Boston: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-1-4051-0212-4.

• Turnbull, Stephen (2002). Samurai Invasion. Japan's Korean War 1592–98. London: Cassell & Co. ISBN978-0-304-35948-6.

C/J/K books[edit]

• Byeon Tae-seop (변태섭) (1999). 韓國史通論 (Hanguksa tongnon) (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed (in Korean). Seoul: Samyeongsa. ISBN978-89-445-9101-3.

• Yamawaki, Keizo (1994). Japan and Foreign Laborers: Chinese and Korean Laborers in the late 1890s and early 1920s (近代日本と外国人労働者―1890年代後半と1920年代前半における中国人・朝鮮人労働者問題) (in Japanese). Tokyo: Akashi-shoten (明石書店). ISBN978-4-7503-0568-4.

• Miyata, Setsuko (1992). Creating Surnames and Changing Given Names (創氏改名). Tokyo: Akashi-shoten (明石書店). ISBN978-4-7503-0406-9.

Notes[edit]

1. ^
   • United States Congress (2016). North Korea: A Country Study. Nova Science Publishers. p. 6. ISBN978-1590334430.

   'Han Chinese built four commanderies, or local military units, to rule the peninsula as far south as the Han River, with a core area at Lolang (Nangnang in Korean), near present-day P'yongyang. It is illustrative of the relentlessly different historiography practiced in North Korea and South Korea, as well as both countries' dubious projection backward of Korean nationalism, that North Korean historians denied that the Lolang district was centered in Korea and placed it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing.'

   • Connor, Edgar V. (2003). Korea: Current Issues and Historical Background. Nova Science Publishers. p. 112. ISBN978-1590334430.

   'They place it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing, in order to de-emphasize China's influence on ancient Korean history.'

   • Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 18. ISBN978-0253000248.

   'Immediately after destroying Wiman Chosŏn, the Han empire established administrative units to rule large territories in the northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria.'

   • Hyung, Hyung Il (2000). Constructing 'Korean' Origins. Harvard University Press. p. 129. ISBN9780674002449.

   'When material evidence from the Han commandery site excavated during the colonial period began to be reinterpreted by Korean nationalist historians as the first full-fledged 'foreign' occupation in Korean history, Lelang's location in the heart of the Korean peninsula became particularly irksome because the finds seemed to verify Japanese colonial theories concerning the dependency of Korean civilization on China.'

   • Hyung, Hyung Il (2000). Constructing 'Korean' Origins. Harvard University Press. p. 128. ISBN9780674002449.

   'At present, the site of Lelang and surrounding ancient Han Chinese remains are situated in the North Korean capital of Pyongyang. Although North Korean scholars have continued to excavate Han dynasty tombs in the postwar period, they have interpreted them as manifestations of the Kochoson or the Koguryo kingdom.'

   • Xu, Stella Yingzi (2007). That glorious ancient history of our nation. University of California, Los Angeles. p. 223. ISBN9780549440369.

   'Lelang Commandery was crucial to understanding the early history of Korea, which lasted from 108 BCE to 313 CE around the Pyongyang area. However, because of its nature as a Han colony and the exceptional attention paid to it by Japanese colonial scholars for making claims of the innate heteronomy of Koreans, post 1945 Korean scholars intentionally avoided the issue of Lelang.'

   • Lee, Peter H. (1993). Sourcebook of Korean Civilization. Columbia University Press. p. 227. ISBN978-0231079129.

   'But when Emperor Wu conquered Choson, all the small barbarian tribes in the northeastern region were incorporated into the established Han commanderies because of the overwhelming military might of Han China.'

2. ^modern historians including Graff consider such a figure greatly exaggerated^{[citation needed]}

External links[edit]

• Korean History online, Korean History Information Center
• Kyujanggak Archive, pdf files of Korean classics in their original written classical Chinese
• Korean History :Bibliography, Center for Korean Studies, University of Hawaii at Manoa
• History of Korea, KBS World
• History of Corea, Ancient and Modern; with Description of Manners and Customs, Language and Geography by John Ross, 1891

Jaffa, in Hebrew Yafo (Hebrew: יפו‎, Yāfō) and in Arabic Yaffa (Arabic: يَافَا‎) and also called Japho or Joppa, the southern and oldest part of Tel Aviv-Jaffa, is an ancient port city in Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the biblical stories of Jonah, Solomon and Saint Peter as well as the mythological story of Andromeda and Perseus, and later for its oranges.

• 2History
  • 2.2Bronze Age
  • 2.11State of Israel
• 4Demography
• 5Landmarks

Etymology[edit]

The town was mentioned in Egyptian sources and the Amarna letters as Yapu. Mythology says that it is named for Yafet, one of the sons of Noah, the one who built it after the Flood.^[1][2] The Hellenist tradition links the name to Iopeia, or Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda. An outcropping of rocks near the harbor is reputed to have been the place where Andromeda was rescued by Perseus. Pliny the Elder associated the name with Iopa, daughter of Aeolus, god of the wind. The medieval Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi referred to it as Yaffa.^[3]

History[edit]

Ancient Jaffa was built on a 40 metres (130 ft) high ridge, with a broad view of the coastline, giving it a strategic importance in military history.^[4] The tell of Jaffa, created through the accumulation of debris and landfill over the centuries, made the hill even higher.

Prehistory[edit]

Archaeological evidence shows that the site of Jaffa was inhabited around 7500 BCE.^[5]

Bronze Age[edit]

The natural harbour of Jaffa has been in use since the Bronze Age.^{[citation needed]}

Middle Bronze Age[edit]

The city as such was established at the latest around 1800 BCE.^[6]

Late Bronze Age[edit]

Jaffa is mentioned in an Ancient Egyptian letter from 1440 BCE. The so-called story of the Taking of Joppa glorifies its conquest by PharaohThutmose III, whose general, Djehuty hid Egyptian soldiers in sacks carried by pack animals and sent them camouflaged as tribute into the Canaanite city, where the soldiers emerged and conquered it. The story predates the story of the Trojan horse, as told by Homer, by at least two centuries.

The city is also mentioned in the Amarna letters under its Egyptian name Ya-Pho, ( Ya-Pu, EA 296, l.33). The city was under Egyptian rule until around 800 BCE.^{[citation needed]}

Hebrew Bible: conquest to return from Babylon[edit]

Jaffa is mentioned four times in the Hebrew Bible, as a city opposite the territory given to the HebrewTribe of Dan (Joshua 19:46), as port-of-entry for the cedars of Lebanon for Solomon's Temple (2 Chronicles 2:16), as the place whence the prophet Jonah embarked for Tarshish (Jonah 1:3) and again as port-of-entry for the cedars of Lebanon for the Second Temple of Jerusalem (Ezra 3:7).

Jaffa is mentioned in the Book of Joshua as the territorial border of the Tribe of Dan, hence the modern term 'Gush Dan' for the center of the coastal plain. The tribe of Dan did not manage to dislocate the Philistines from Jaffa, but many descendants of Dan lived along the coast and earned their living from shipmaking and sailing. In the 'Song of Deborah' the prophetess asks: 'דן למה יגור אוניות': 'Why doth Dan dwell in ships?'^[7]

After Canaanite and Philistine dominion, King David and his son King Solomon conquered Jaffa and used its port to bring the cedars used in the construction of the First Temple from Tyre.^{[citation needed]}

The city remained in Israelite hands even after the split of the united Kingdom of Israel.^{[citation needed]}

Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian periods[edit]

In 701 BCE, in the days of King Hezekiah (חזקיהו), Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invaded the region from Jaffa. After a period of Babylonian occupation, under Persian rule, Jaffa was governed by Phoenicians from Tyre.^{[citation needed]}

Hellenistic to Byzantine periods[edit]

Alexander the Great's troops were stationed in Jaffa. It later became a port city of the Seleucid Empire until it was taken over by the Maccabees (1 Maccabees 10:74–76) and ruled by the Hasmonean dynasty.^{[citation needed]} According to Josephus, however, the harbor at Jaffa was inferior to that of Caesarea.^[8]

During the First Jewish–Roman War, Jaffa was captured and burned by Cestius Gallus. The Roman Jewish historian Josephus (Jewish War 2.507–509, 3:414–426) writes that 8,400 inhabitants were massacred. Pirates operating from the rebuilt port incurred the wrath of Vespasian, who razed the city and erected a citadel in its place, installing a Roman garrison there.^{[citation needed]}

The New Testament account of Saint Peter bringing back to life the widow Dorcas (recorded in Acts of the Apostles, 9:36–42, takes place in Jaffa, then called in Greek Ἰόππη (Latinized as Joppa). Acts 10:10–23 relates that, while Peter was in Jaffa, he had a vision of a large sheet filled with 'clean' and 'unclean' animals being lowered from heaven, together with a message from the Holy Spirit telling him to accompany several messengers to Cornelius in Caesarea Maritima. Peter retells the story of his vision in Acts 11:4–17, explaining how he had come to preach Christianity to the gentiles.

In Midrash Tanna'im in its chapter Deuteronomy 33:19, reference is made to Jose ben Halafta (2nd century) traveling through Jaffa. Jaffa seems to have attracted serious Jewish scholars in the 4th and 5th century. The Jerusalem Talmud (compiled 4th and 5th century) in Moed Ketan references Rabi Akha bar Khanina of Jaffa; and in Pesachim chapter 1 refers to Rabi Pinchas ben Yair of Jaffa. The Babylonian Talmud (compiled 5th century) in Megillah 16b mentions Rav Adda Demin of Jaffa. Leviticus Rabbah (compiled between 5th and 7th century) mentions Rav Nachman of Jaffa. The Pesikta Rabbati (written in the 9th century) in chapter 17 mentions R. Tanchum of Jaffa.^[9] Several streets and alleys of the Jaffa Flea Market area are named after these scholars.

During the first centuries of Christianity, Jaffa was a fairly unimportant Roman and Byzantine locality, which only in the 5th century became a bishopric.^[10] A very small number of its Greek or Latin bishops are known.^[11][12]

Early Islamic period[edit]

In 636 Jaffa was conquered by Arabs. Under Islamic rule, it served as a port of Ramla, then the provincial capital.

Al-Muqaddasi (c. 945/946 – 991) described Yafah as 'lying on the sea, is but a small town, although the emporium of Palestine and the port of Ar Ramlah. It is protected by a strong wall with iron gates, and the sea-gates also are of iron. The mosque is pleasant to the eye, and overlooks the sea. The harbour is excellent'.^[3]

Crusader/Ayyubid period[edit]

Jaffa was captured in June 1099 during the First Crusade, and was the centre of the County of Jaffa and Ascalon, one of the vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. One of its counts, John of Ibelin, wrote the principal book of the Assizes of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.^{[citation needed]}

Saladin conquered Jaffa in 1187. The city surrendered to King Richard the Lionheart on 10 September 1191, three days after the Battle of Arsuf. Despite efforts by Saladin to reoccupy the city in the July 1192 Battle of Jaffa, the city remained in the hands of the Crusaders. On 2 September 1192, the Treaty of Jaffa was formally signed, guaranteeing a three-year truce between the two armies. Frederick II fortified the castle of Jaffa and had two inscriptions carved into city wall, one Latin and the other Arabic. The inscription, deciphered in 2011, describes him as the 'Holy Roman Emperor' and bears the date '1229 of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus the Messiah.'^[13]

Mamluk period[edit]

In 1268, Jaffa was conquered by Egyptian Mamluks, led by Baibars.

Abu'l-Fida (1273–1331), writing in 1321, described 'Yafa, in Filastin' as 'a small but very pleasant town lying on the sea-shore. It has a celebrated harbour. The town of Yafa is well fortified. Its markets are much frequented, and many merchants ply their trades here. There is a large harbour frequented by all the ships coming to Filastin, and from it they set sail to all lands. Between it and Ar Ramlah the distance is 6 miles, and it lies west of Ar Ramlah.'^[3]

Ottoman period[edit]

In 1515, Jaffa was conquered by the OttomansultanSelim I.^[14]

In the census of 1596, it appeared located in the nahiya of Ramla in the liwa of Gaza. It had a population of 15 households, all Muslim. They paid a fixed tax rate of 33,3 % on various products; a total of 7,520 akçe.^[14]

The traveller Jean Cotwyk (Cotovicus) described Jaffa as a heap of ruins when he visited in 1598.^[15][16]

The 17th century saw the beginning of the re-establishment of churches and hostels for Christian pilgrims en route to Jerusalem and the Galilee. During the 18th century, the coastline around Jaffa was often besieged by pirates and this led to the inhabitants relocating to Ramla and Lod, where they relied on messages from a solitary guard house to inform them when ships were approaching the harbour. The landing of goods and passengers was notoriously difficult and dangerous. Until well into the 20th century, ships had to rely on teams of oarsmen to bring their cargo ashore.^[17]

On 7 March 1799 Napoleon captured the town in what became known as the Siege of Jaffa, ransacked it, and killed scores of local inhabitants as a reaction to his envoys being brutally killed when delivering an ultimatum of surrender. Napoleon ordered the massacre of thousands of Muslim soldiers who were imprisoned having surrendered to the French.^[18] Napoleon's deputy commissioner of war Moit described it thus:

On 10 March 1799 in the afternoon, the prisoners of Jaffa were marched off in the midst of a vast square phalanx formed by the troops of General Bon... The Turks, walking along in total disorder, had already guessed their fate and appeared not even to shed any tears... When they finally arrived in the sand dunes to the south-west of Jaffa, they were ordered to halt beside a pool of yellowish water. The officer commanding the troops then divided the mass of prisoners into small groups, who were led off to several different points and shot... Finally, of all the prisoners there only remained those who were beside the pool of water. Our soldiers had used up their cartridges, so there was nothing to be done but to dispatch them with bayonets and knives. ... The result ... was a terrible pyramid of dead and dying bodies dripping blood and the bodies of those already dead had to be pulled away so as to finish off those unfortunate beings who, concealed under this awful and terrible wall of bodies, had not yet been struck down.^[18]

Many more died in an epidemic of bubonic plague that broke out soon afterwards.^[19] The governor who was appointed after these devastating events, Muhammad Abu-Nabbut, commenced wide-ranging building and restoration work in Jaffa, including the Mahmoudiya Mosque and Sabil Abu Nabbut. During the 1834 Peasants' revolt in Palestine, Jaffa was besieged for forty days by 'mountaineers' in revolt against Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt.^[20]

Residential life in the city was reestablished in the early 19th century. In 1820, Isaiah Ajiman of Istanbul built a synagogue and hostel for the accommodation of Jews on their way to the holy cities of Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias and Safed. This area became known as Dar al-Yehud (Arabic for 'the house of the Jews'); and was the basis of the Jewish community in Jaffa. The appointment of Mahmud Aja as Ottoman governor marked the beginning of a period of stability and growth for the city, interrupted by the 1832 conquest of the city by Muhammad Ali of Egypt.^{[citation needed]}

By 1839, at least 153 Sephardi Jews were living in Jaffa.^[21] The community was served for fifty years by Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi miRagusa. In the early 1850s, HaLevi leased an orchard to Clorinda S. Minor, founder of a Christian messianic community that established Mount Hope, a farming initiative to encourage local Jews to learn manual trades, which the Messianics did in order to pave wave for the Second Coming of Jesus. In 1855, the British Jewish philanthropist Moses Montefiore bought the orchard from HaLevi, although Minor continued to manage it.^[22]

American missionary Ellen Clare Miller, visiting Jaffa in 1867, reported that the town had a population of 'about 5000, 1000 of these being Christians, 800 Jews and the rest Moslems'.^[23][24] The city walls were torn down during the 1870s, allowing the city to expand.^[25]

By the beginning of the 20th century, the population of Jaffa had swelled considerably. A group of Jews left Jaffa for the sand dunes to the north, where in 1909 they held a lottery to divide the lots acquired earlier. The settlement was known at first as Ahuzat Bayit (Hebrew: אחוזת בית), but an assembly of its residents changed its name to Tel Aviv on 21 May 1910. Other Jewish suburbs to Jaffa were founded at about the same time. In 1904, rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (1864–1935) moved to Ottoman Palestine and took up the position of Chief Rabbi of Jaffa.^[26] In 1917, the Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation resulted in the Ottomans expelling the entire civilian population. While Muslim evacuees were allowed to return before long, the Jewish evacuees remained in camps (and some in Egypt) until after the British conquest.^[27]

During the course of their campaign through Ottoman Palestine and the Sinai against the Ottomans, the British took Jaffa in November 1917 although it remained under observation and fire from the Ottomans. The battle of Jaffa in late December 1917 pushed back the Ottoman forces securing Jaffa and the line of communication between it and Jerusalem (which had been taken on 11 December in the Battle of Jerusalem).

British Mandate[edit]

According to the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Jaffa had a population of 47,799, consisting of 20,699 Muslims, 20,152 Jews and 6850 Christians.,^[28] increasing to 51,866 in the 1931 census, residing in 11,304 houses.^[29]

During the British Mandate, tension between the Jewish and Arab population increased. A wave of Arab attacks during 1920 and 1921 caused many Jewish residents to flee and resettle in Tel Aviv, initially a marginal Jewish neighborhood north of Jaffa. The Jaffa riots in 1921, (known in Hebrew as Meoraot Tarpa) began with a May Day parade that turned violent. Arab rioters attacked Jewish residents and buildings killing 47 Jews and wounding 146.^[30] The Hebrew author Yosef Haim Brenner was killed in the riots.^[31] At the end of 1922, Jaffa had 47,799 residents and Tel Aviv 15,000. By 1927, the population of Tel Aviv was up to 38,000.

Still, during most of the 1920s Jaffa and Tel Aviv maintained peaceful co-existence. Most Jewish businesses were located in Jaffa, some Jewish neighbourhoods paid taxes to the municipality of Jaffa, many young Jews who could not afford the housing costs of Tel Aviv resided there, and the big neighbourhood of Menashiya was by and large fully mixed. The first electric company in the British Mandate of Palestine, although owned by Jewish shareholders, had been named the Jaffa Electric Company. In 1923, both Jaffa and Tel Aviv had begun a rapid process of wired electrification through a joint grid.^[32]

The 1936–39 Arab revolt in British Palestine inflicted great economic and infrastructural damage on Jaffa. It began on 19 April 1936 with a riot remembered as 'the Bloody Day in Jaffa', which ended with 9 Jews killed and scores injured.^[33] The Arab leadership declared a general strike, which began in the Jaffa Port, a place that had already become a symbol of Arab resistance.^[34] Military reinforcements were brought in from Malta and Egypt to subdue the rioting which spread throughout the country. The Old City, with its maze of homes, winding alleyways and underground sewer system, provided an ideal escape route for the rioters fleeing the British army.^[34]

In May, municipal services were cut off, the old city was barricaded, and access roads were covered with glass shards and nails.^[34] In June, British bombers dropped boxes of leaflets in Arabic requesting the inhabitants to evacuate that same day.^[34] On the evening of 17 June 1936, 1500 British soldiers entered Jaffa and a British warship sealed off escape routes by sea. The British Royal Engineers blew up homes from east to west, leaving an open strip that cut through the heart of the city from end to end. On 29 June, security forces implemented another stage of the plan, carving a swath from north to south.^[34] The mandatory authorities claimed the operation was part of a 'facelift' of the old city.^[34]

In 1945, Jaffa had a population of 94,310, of whom 50,880 were Muslims, 28,000 were Jews, 15,400 were Christians and 30 were classified as 'other'.^[35] The Christians were mostly Greek Orthodox and about one-sixth of them were members of the Eastern Catholic Churches. One of the most prominent members of the Arab Christian community was the Greek Orthodox Issa El-Issa, publisher of the newspaper Falastin.

In 1947, the UN Special Commission on Palestine recommended that Jaffa be included in the planned Jewish state. Due to the large Arab majority, however, it was instead designated as part of the Arab state in the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.^[36]

Following the inter-communal violence which broke out following the passing of the UN partition resolution the mayors of Jaffa and Tel Aviv tried to calm their communities.^[37] One of the main concerns for the people of Jaffa was the protection of the citrus fruit export trade which had still not reached its pre-Second World War highs.^[38] Eventually the bilateral orange-picking and exporting of both sides continued although without a formal agreement.^[39]

At the beginning of 1948 Jaffa's defenders consisted of one company of around 400 men organised by the Muslim Brotherhood.^[40] As in Haifa, the irregulars intimidated the local population.^[39]

On 4 January 1948 the Lehi detonated a truck bomb outside the 3-storey 'Serrani', Jaffa's Ottoman built town hall, killing 26 and injuring hundreds. The driver was reported to be wearing the uniform of the Royal Irish Fusiliers.^{[41][42][43][44]}

In February Jaffa's Mayor, Yussuf Haykal, contacted David Ben-Gurion through a British intermediary trying to secure a peace agreement with Tel Aviv, but the commander of the Arab militia in Jaffa opposed it.^[39][45]

On 25 April 1948, the Irgun launched an offensive on Jaffa. This began with a mortar bombardment which went on for three days during which twenty tons of high explosive were fired into the town.^[46][47] On 27 April the British Government, fearing a repetition of the mass exodus from Haifa the week before, ordered the British Army to confront the Irgun and their offensive ended. Simultaneously the Haganah had launched Operation Hametz, which overran the villages east of Jaffa and cut the town off from the interior.^[48]

The population of Jaffa on the eve of the attack was between 50,000 and 60,000, with some 20,000 people having already left the town.^[46] By 30 April, there were 15,000–25,000 remaining.^[48][49] In the following days a further 10,000–20,000 people fled by sea. When the Haganah took control of the town on 14 May around 4,000 people were left.^[50] The town and harbour's warehouses were extensively looted.^[51][52]

The city surrendered to the Haganah on 14 May 1948 and shortly after the British police and army left the city.^[53]The 3,800 Arabs who remained in Jaffa after the exodus were concentrated in the Ajami district and subject to strict martial law.^[54]

State of Israel[edit]

Boundary demarcation of Tel Aviv-Jaffa[edit]

The boundaries of Tel Aviv and Jaffa became a matter of contention between the Tel Aviv municipality and the Israeli government during 1948.^[55] The former wished to incorporate only the northern Jewish suburbs of Jaffa, while the latter wanted a more complete unification.^[55] The issue also had international sensitivity, since the main part of Jaffa was in the Arab portion of the United Nations Partition Plan, whereas Tel Aviv was not, and no armistice agreements had yet been signed.^[55] On 10 December 1948, the government announced the annexation to Tel Aviv of Jaffa's Jewish suburbs, the Arab neighborhood of Abu Kabir, the Arab village of Salama and some of its agricultural land, and the working class Jewish area of Hatikva.^[55] On 25 February 1949, the depopulated Arab village of Sheikh Muanis, on the opposite (northeast) side of Tel Aviv from Jaffa, was also annexed to Tel Aviv.^[55] On 18 May 1949, the Arab neighborhood of Manshiya and part of Jaffa's central zone were added, for the first time including land that had been in the Arab portion of the UN partition plan.^[55] The government decided on a permanent unification of Tel Aviv and Jaffa on 4 October 1949, but the actual unification was delayed until 24 April 1950 due to concerted opposition from Tel Aviv's mayor Israel Rokach.^[55] The name of the unified city was Tel Aviv until 19 August 1950, when it was renamed as Tel Aviv-Yafo in order to preserve the historical name Jaffa.^[55]

Urban development[edit]

From the 1990s onwards, efforts have been made to restore Arab and Islamic landmarks, such as the Mosque of the Sea and Hassan Bek Mosque, and document the history of Jaffa's Arab population.Parts of the Old City have been renovated, turning Jaffa into a tourist attraction featuring old restored buildings, art galleries, theaters, souvenir shops, restaurants, sidewalk cafes and promenades.^{[citation needed]} Many artists have moved their studios from Tel Aviv to the Old City and its surroundings, such as the Jaffa port,^[56] the American–Germany Colony^[57] and the flea market.^[58] Beyond the Old City and tourist sites, many neighborhoods of Jaffa are poor and underdeveloped. However, real-estate prices have risen sharply due to gentrification projects in Ajami, Noga, and Lev Yafo.^[59][60][61] The municipality of Tel Aviv-Jaffa is currently working to beautify and modernize the port area.

Economy[edit]

In the 19th century, Jaffa was best known for its soap industry. Modern industry emerged in the late 1880s.^[62] The most successful enterprises were metalworking factories, among them the machine shop run by the Templers that employed over 100 workers in 1910.^[62] Other factories produced orange-crates, barrels, corks, noodles, ice, seltzer, candy, soap, olive oil, leather, alkali, wine, cosmetics and ink.^[62] Most of the newspapers and books printed in Ottoman Palestine were published in Jaffa.

In 1859, a Jewish visitor, L.A. Frankl, found sixty-five Jewish families living in Jaffa, 'about 400 soul in all.' Of these four were shoemakers, three tailors, one silversmith and one watchmaker. There were also merchants and shopkeepers and 'many live by manual labour, porters, sailors, messengers, etc.'^[63]

Until the mid-19th century, Jaffa's orange groves were mainly owned by Arabs, who employed traditional methods of farming. The pioneers of modern agriculture in Jaffa were American settlers, who brought in farm machinery in the 1850s and 1860s, followed by the Templers and the Jews.^[64] From the 1880s, real estate became an important branch of the economy. A 'biarah' (a watered garden) cost 100,000 piastres and annually produced 15,000, of which the farming costs were 5,000: 'A very fair percentage return on the investment.' Water for the gardens was easily accessible with wells between ten and forty feet deep.^[65][66]Jaffa's citrus industry began to flourish in the last quarter of the 19th century. E.C. Miller records that 'about ten million' oranges were being exported annually, and that the town was surrounded by 'three or four hundred orange gardens, each containing upwards of one thousand trees'.^[67] Shamuti oranges were the major crop, but citrons, lemons and mandarin oranges were also grown.^[68] Jaffa had a reputation for producing the best pomegranates.^[69]

Demography[edit]

Modern Jaffa has a heterogeneous population of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Jaffa currently has 46,000 residents, of whom 30,000 are Jews and 16,000 are Arabs.^[70] The 2010 film Port of Memory explores these themes.^[71]Tabeetha School in Jaffa was founded in 1863. It is owned by the Church of Scotland. The school provides education in English to children from Christian, Jewish and Muslim backgrounds.^[72]

Socioeconomic and political problems[edit]

Jaffa suffers from drug problems, high crime rates and violence.^{[citation needed]} Some Arab residents have alleged that the Israeli authorities are attempting to Judaize Jaffa by evicting Arab residents from houses owned by the Amidar government-operated public housing company. Amidar representatives say the residents are illegal squatters.^[73] The 2010 film Port of Memory explores these themes.^[71]

Landmarks[edit]

Sights and museums[edit]

The Clock Square with its distinctive clocktower was built in 1906 in honor of SultanAbdul Hamid II. The Saraya (governor's palace) was built in the 1890s.^[74]Andromeda rock is the rock to which beautiful Andromeda was chained in Greek mythology.^[75] The Zodiac alleys are a maze of restored alleys leading to the harbor. Jaffa Hill is a center for archaeological finds, including restored Egyptian gates, about 3,500 years old. Jaffa Lighthouse is an inactive lighthouse located in the old port.

The Jaffa Museum of Antiquities is located in an 18th-century Ottoman building constructed on the remains of a Crusader fortress. In 1811, Abu Nabout turned it into his seat of government. In the late 19th century, the governmental moved to the 'New Saraya,' and the building was sold to a wealthy Greek-Orthodox family who established a soap factory there. Since 1961, it has housed an archaeological museum,^[76] which is currently closed to the general public.^[77]

The Libyan Synagogue (Beit Zunana) was a synagogue built by a Jewish landlord, Zunana, in the 18th century. It was turned into a hotel and then a soap factory, and reopened as a synagogue for Libyan Jewish immigrants after 1948. In 1995, it became a museum.

Other museums and galleries in the area include the Farkash Gallery collection.

Churches and monasteries[edit]

The Greek OrthodoxMonastery of Archangel Michael (Patriarchate of Jerusalem) near Jaffa Port also has Romanian and Russian communities in its compound. Built in 1894, the Church of St. Peter and St. Tabitha serves the Russian Orthodox Christian community, with services in Russian and Hebrew; underneath the chapel nearby there is what is believed to be the tomb of St Tabitha.^[78]

St. Peter's Church is a FranciscanRoman-Catholic basilica and hospice built in 1654 on the remains of a Crusadersfortress, and commemorates St Peter, as he brought the disciple Tabitha back from the dead; Napoleon is believed to have stayed there.

Immanuel Church, built 1904, serves today a Lutheran congregation with services in English and Hebrew.

The Saint Nicholas Armenian Monastery was built in the 17th century.

Mosques[edit]

Al-Bahr Mosque, lit. the Sea Mosque, overlooking the harbour, is depicted in a painting from 1675 by the Dutch painter Lebrun. It may be Jaffa's oldest existing mosque, although the original date of construction is unknown and changes to the structure have been made since then, such as the addition of a second floor and reconstruction of the upper part of the minaret. It was used by fishermen and sailors frequenting the port, and residents of the surrounding area. According to local legend, the wives of sailors living in Jaffa prayed there for the safe return of their husbands. The mosque was renovated in 1997.^[79]

Mahmoudia Mosque was built in 1812 by Abu Nabbut, governor of Jaffa from 1810 to 1820.^[80] Outside the mosque is a water fountain (sabil) for pilgrims.^[81]

Nouzha Mosque on Jerusalem Boulevard is Jaffa's main mosque today.

Archaeology[edit]

The majority of excavations in Jaffa are salvage in nature and are conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority since the 1990s. Excavations on Rabbi Pinchas Street, for example, in the flea market have revealed walls and water conduits dating to the Iron Age, Hellenistic, Early Islamic, Crusader and Ottoman periods. A limestone slab (50 cm × 50 cm or 20 in × 20 in) engraved with a menorah discovered on Tanchum Street is believed to be the door of a tomb.^[82]

Additional efforts to conduct research excavations at that site included those of B. J. Isserlin (1950), Ze'ev Herzog of Tel Aviv University (1997–1999), and most recently the Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project (since 2007), directed by Aaron A. Burke (UCLA) and Martin Peilstocker (Johannes Gutenberg University).

Education[edit]

Collège des Frères de Jaffa, a French international school, is in Jaffa.

Transportation[edit]

Cambridge Ancient History Volume 6 Pdf Portugues

Jaffa is served by the Dan Bus Company, which operates buses to various neighborhoods of Tel Aviv and Bat Yam.

Cambridge Ancient History Volume 6 Pdf Portfolio

The Red Line of the planned Tel Aviv Light Rail will cross Jaffa north to south along Jerusalem Boulevard.

Jaffa Railway Station was the first railway station in the Middle East. It served as the terminus for the Jaffa–Jerusalem railway. The station opened in 1891 and closed in 1948. In 2005–09, the station was restored and converted into an entertainment and leisure venue marketed as 'HaTachana', Hebrew for 'the station' (see homepage here:^[83]).

In popular culture[edit]

The Knight Of Jaffa is the second episode of the Doctor Who story The Crusade, set in Palestine during the Third Crusade.

Clash of the Titans is set in ancient Joppa. The 2009 Oscar-nominated film Ajami is set in modern Jaffa.

Notable residents[edit]

• Asma Agbarieh (born 1974), Israeli Arab journalist and political activist
• Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970), Nobel Prize-winning author
• Yitzhak Ben-Zvi (1884–1963), historian, Labor Zionist leader, and President of Israel
• Benny Hinn (born 1953), TV Evangelist and Preacher
• Yosef Eliyahu Chelouche (1870–1934), one of the founders of Tel Aviv; businessman
• Joseph Constant (1892–1969), sculptor and writer
• Ismail al-Faruqi (1921–1986), Palestinian-American philosopher
• Lea Gottlieb (1918–2012), Israeli founder and fashion designer of Gottex
• Victor Norris Hamilton (born c. 1919), Palestinian-born American cryptologist
• J. E. Hanauer (1850–1938), author, photographer, and Canon of St George's Church
• Yizhar Harari (1908–1978), Zionist activist and Israeli politician
• Nadia Hilou (1953–2015), Arab-Israeli politician
• Issa El-Issa (1878–1950), Arab journalist
• Raja El-Issa (1922–2008), Arab journalist
• Michel Loève (1907–1979), probabilist and mathematical statistician
• Haim Ramon (born 1950), Israeli politician
• Sasha Roiz (born 1973), Canadian actor
• Yosef Sapir (1902–72), Israeli politician
• Rifaat Turk (born 1954), Arab-Israeli football player and manager, and deputy mayor of Tel Aviv

See also[edit]

• County of Jaffa and Ascalon (under the Crusaders)

References[edit]

1. ^One example of this legend is the sixteenth-century French pilgrim Denis Possot who recorded, 'Jaffe, est le port de la Terre saincte, anciennement nommé Joppe, faict et construict premierment en ville et cité grande à merveilles et de grant renom, par Japhet, fils de Noé.' in his Le Voyage de la Terre Sainte (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints 1971, reprint of Paris edition, 1890, orig. 1532), p. 155.
2. ^Another pilgrim, Sir Richard of Guylforde, wrote,'This Jaffe was sometyme a grete Cytie [...] and it was one of the firste Cyties of the worlde founded by Japheth, Noes sone, and beryth yet his name.' In the pilgrimage narrative from 1506, recorded by his chaplain in 1511, edited by Sir Henry Ellis (London: Camden Society, 1851), p. 16.
3. ^ ^abcle Strange, 1890, pp. 550-551
4. ^Stacey Jennifer Miller, The Lion Temple of Jaffa: Archaeological Investigations of the Late Bronze Age Egyptian Occupation in Canaan.BA thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 2012
5. ^'TEL YAFO EXPEDITION: Excavations at Ancient Jaffa (Joppa)'. Tel Aviv University.
6. ^Aaron A. Burke and Martin Peilstöcker, The Egyptian Fortress in Jaffa, Popular Archaeology, 3 March 2013
7. ^'Judges Chapter 5 שׁוֹפְטִים'. Judges 5:17 – Gilead abode beyond the Jordan; and Dan, why doth he sojourn by the ships? Asher dwelt at the shore of the sea, and abideth by its bays.
8. ^Josephus (1981). Josephus Complete Works. Translated by William Whiston. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Kregel Publications. p. 331. ISBN0-8254-2951-X., s.v. Antiquities15.9.6. (15.331)
9. ^Rabbi Joseph Schwarz, Descriptive Geography and Brief Historical Sketch of Palestine, archived from the original on 21 June 2011, retrieved 31 May 2011
10. ^Michel Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, III, 627.
11. ^Michel Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, III, 625–30, 1291; Konrad Eubel, Hierarchia catholica medii aevi, Munich, I, 297; II, 186.
12. ^Catholic Encyclopedia, [1]
13. ^Lorenzi, Rossella (15 November 2011), First Arabic Crusader Inscription Found, Discovery News
14. ^ ^abHütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 151
15. ^Gotthard Deutsch and M. Franco (1903). 'Jaffa'. Jewish Encyclopedia.
16. ^Joannes Cotovicus (1619). Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum et Syriacum. Antwerp. p. 135.
17. ^Thomson, 1859, vol 2, p. 275
18. ^ ^abJacques-François Moit (1814). Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des expéditions en Égypte et en Syrie., quoted in Véronique Nahoum-Grappe (2002). 'The anthropology of extreme violence: the crime of desecration'. International Social Science Journal. 54 (174): 549–557. doi:10.1111/1468-2451.00409.
19. ^Jaffa: a City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 8–9
20. ^Thomson, page 515.
21. ^The digitalization project of the 19th century censuses in Eretz Israel done under the auspices of Sir Moses Montefiore, retrieved 31 May 2011
22. ^Friedman, Lior (5 April 2009). 'The mountain of despair,'. Haaretz.com. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
23. ^Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches — notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. Page 97. See also Miller's populations of Damascus, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nablus and Samaria
24. ^Thompson (above) writing in 1856 has '25 years ago the inhabitants of the city and gardens were about 6000; now there must be 15,000 at least...' Considering the length of time he lived in the area this may be a more accurate count.
25. ^Jaffa, an Historical Survey. Written with the assistance of Mr. Tzvi Shacham, the curator of the Antiquities Museum of Tel Aviv-Jaffa
26. ^Rav Hillel Rachmani. 'Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook'. Jewish Virtual Library.
27. ^Friedman, Isaiah (1971). 'German Intervention on Behalf of the 'Yishuv', 1917 , Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 33, pp. 23–43.
28. ^Barron, 1923, p .6
29. ^Mills, 1932, p. 13
30. ^Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the disturbances in the British Mandate of Palestine in May 1921, with correspondence relating thereto (Disturbances), 1921, Cmd. 1540, p. 60.
31. ^Honig, Sarah (30 April 2009). 'Another Tack: The May Day Massacre of 1921'.
32. ^Ronen Shamir (2013) Current Flow: The Electrification of Palestine. Stanford: Stanford University Press
33. ^Viton, Albert (3 June 1936). 'Why Arabs Kill Jews'. The Nation. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
34. ^ ^abcdefThe Land That Become Israel: Studies in Historical Geography, ed. Ruth Kark, Yale University Press & Magnes Press, 1989, 'Aerial Perspectives of Past Landscapes,' Dov Gavish, pp. 316–317
35. ^Department of Statistics, 1945, p. 27
36. ^A/RES/181(II)(A+B), Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine (UN Partition Plan details), United Nations General Assembly, 29 November 1947, archived from the original on 16 April 2013, The area of the Arab enclave of Jaffa consists of that part of the town-planning area of Jaffa which lies to the west of the Jewish quarters lying south of Tel-Aviv, to the west of the continuation of Herzl street up to its junction with the Jaffa-Jerusalem road, to the south-west of the section of the Jaffa-Jerusalem road lying south-east of that junction, to the west of Miqve Israel lands, to the north-west of Holon local council area, to the north of the line linking up the north-west corner of Holon with the north-east corner of Bat Yam local council area and to the north of Bat Yam local council area. The question of Karton quarter will be decided by the Boundary Commission, bearing in mind among other considerations the desirability of including the smallest possible number of its Arab inhabitants and the largest possible number of its Jewish inhabitants in the Jewish State.
37. ^Dov Joseph, 'The Faithful City', Simon and Schuster, 1960. Library of Congress number: 60-10976. Page 24: 'In an exchange of letters between Mayor Yisrael Rokach of Tel Aviv and Mayor Youssef Haikal of Jaffa, both agreed to call upon the residents to maintain peace and quite'.
38. ^'A survey of Palestine', printed 1946–1947. Reprinted ISP, Washington, 1991 ISBN0-88728-211-3. Page 474: Exports of citrus fruit total value in Palestine Pounds, 1938/39 = P£4,355,853. 1944/45 = P£1,474,854. Ironically, due to the Nazi conquest of the Netherlands, Tel Aviv's trade in polished diamonds had increased over three-fold to P£3,235,117. Page 476
39. ^ ^abcBenny Morris (2004). The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–. ISBN978-0-521-00967-6. (p. 114) And rifts among the Jaffa Arabs from the beginning subverted all efforts at peacemaking. In February, Ben-Gurion wrote to Shertok that Heikal, through a British intermediary,was trying to secure an agreement with Tel Aviv but that the new irregulars’ commander, ‘Abdul Wahab ‘Ali Shihaini, had blocked him. .... According to Ben-Gurion, Shihaini had answered: ‘I do not mind [the] destruction [of] Jaffa if we secure [the] destruction [of] Tel Aviv. As in Haifa, the irregulars intimidated the local population, echoing the experience of 1936–1939. ‘. . . The inhabitants were more afraid of their defenders-saviours than of the Jews their enemies’, wrote Nimr al Khatib. (p. 115) But Arab notables, through British intermediaries, continued to press for a wider citrus agreement. ... In the end, a formal agreement was never concluded. But neither was a complete blockade imposed on Jaffa, and the bilateral orange-picking and -exporting continued largely unhampered.
40. ^Herbert Pritzke 'Bedouin Doctor — The adventures of a German in the Middle East', Translated by Richard Graves. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London. 1957. Copyright Ullstein and Co, Vienna, 1956. Page 149: 'At that time the Arab Brigade in Jaffa consisted of seven Germans, one hundred and fifty Jugoslavs, thirty Egyptians and two hundred Lebanese and Syrians. There were very few Arabs among them as these preferred irregular warfare with the National Guard ...'
41. ^The Scotsman newspaper, 6 January 1948
42. ^LeBor, Adam (21 January 2006). 'Jaffa: Divided it fell'. The Independent.
43. ^Walid Khalidi states that 25 civilians were killed and dates the attack as occurring on 4 January. 'Before their Diaspora', 1984. p.316, picture p.325
44. ^Morris, page 46. Attributes attack to 'LHI' (Lehi), doesn't indicate the number of casualties and gives date as 4 January.
45. ^Benny Morris, 'The birth of the Palestinian refugee problem, 1947–1949', Cambridge University Press, 1987, ISBN0-521-33028-9. Page 47.
46. ^ ^abMorris, page 95.
47. ^Menachem Begin, 'The Revolt — story of the Irgun'. Translated by Samuel Katz. Hadar Publishing, Tel Aviv. 1964. pp. 355–371.
48. ^ ^abMorris, page 100.
49. ^Begin, page 363.
50. ^Morris, page 101: 'On 18 May Ben-Gurion visited the conquered city for the first time and commented:'I couldn't understand: Why did the inhabitants of Jaffa leave?'
51. ^Jon Kimche, 'Seven Falen Pillars; The Middle East, 1915–1950'. Secker and Warburg, London. 1950. Page 224 :'the orgy of looting and wanton destruction which hangs like a black pall over almost all the Jewish military successes.'
52. ^Karpel, Dalia (14 February 2008). 'Wellsprings of memory'. Haaretz – Israel News. Archived from the original on 25 March 2009.
53. ^Yoav Gelber, Independence Versus Nakba; Kinneret–Zmora-Bitan–Dvir Publishing, 2004, ISBN965–517–190–6 Parameter error in {{ISBN}}: Invalid ISBN., p.104
54. ^Ravit Goldhaber & Izhak Schnell; Schnell (2007). 'A Model of Multidimensional Segregation in the Arab Ghetto in Tel Aviv-Jaffa'. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie. 98 (5): 603–620. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9663.2007.00428.x.
55. ^ ^abcdefghArnon Golan (1995), The demarcation of Tel Aviv-Jaffa's municipal boundaries, Planning Perspectives, vol. 10, pp. 383–398.
56. ^Areas to Visit(PDF), Tel Aviv Municipality, archived from the original(PDF) on 12 July 2012, retrieved 18 December 2012, Today, local fisherman still use the harbor and the main hangars of the port have been restored and include art galleries
57. ^For example, Jonathan Kis-Lev's studio; see 'A visit to the American Colony in Jaffa'. Israel Traveler. 22 May 2011. Archived from the original on 27 July 2013.
58. ^Ashley (20 September 2012), Jaffa Flea Market: a Place to Sharpen Those Haggling Skills!, The Jaffa Flea Market [...] invites a younger, hipper crowd to inspect its newly added art galleries'
59. ^Kloosterman, Karin (29 November 2006), 'Changes in the air for Ajami: A mixed Arab-Jewish neighborhood in Jaffa balances itself between rundown remnants of old-world charm and upscale gentrification', The Jerusalem Post
60. ^'Canada, Israel won the bid to acquire 7.6 acres in prestigious area of south Tel Aviv – will pay 211 million'.
61. ^'Tel Aviv American Colony buildings for sale'.
62. ^ ^abcJaffa: A City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 256–257.
63. ^Dr Frankl, translated by P. Beaton, 'The Jews in the East'. Volume 1. Hurst and Blackett, London, 1859. Page 345. He adds 'The community is poor, and receives no alms from any quarter.' which resulted in some envy of the 'our bethren' in Jerusalem.
64. ^Jaffa: A City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 244–246.
65. ^Thompson, page 517.
66. ^Jaffa: A City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, p.262.
67. ^Miller, page 97: 'The orange gardens are the finest in the East; and during the late winter and early spring, little white sailed vessels from Greece, Constantinople and the islands of the Archipelago, lie in calm weather at a short distance from the coast, waiting to carry away the fruit'.
68. ^Jaffa: A City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 242.
69. ^Thomson p.517: Sidon has best bananas, Jaffa the best pomegranates, oranges of Sidon are more juicy and have richer flavour. Jaffa oranges hang on the trees much later, and will bear shipping to distant regions.'
70. ^Universal JerusalemArchived 5 October 2014 at Archive.today
71. ^ ^ab'Port of Memory (2010) on IMDb
72. ^'History of Tabeetha'. Tabeetha School in Jaffa. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
73. ^Hai, Yigal (28 April 2007). 'Protesters rally in Jaffa against move to evict local Arab families'. Haaretz.
74. ^'Tel aviv yafo'. Tel-Aviv/Yafo Municipality.^{[failed verification]}
75. ^Pliny the Elder. 'v.69'. Natural History.
76. ^'Old Jaffa Museum'. Archived from the original on 26 December 2008.
77. ^'Project Partners'. The Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project. The Jaffa Museum of Archaeology. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
78. ^'В день памяти праведной Тавифы на подворье Русской духовной миссии в Яффо совершена праздничная Литургия' [On the feast day of Tabitha of righteous memory, a festive liturgy performed in the courtyard of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Jaffa]. Russian Orthodox Church. 9 November 2009.
79. ^'Al-Bahr mosque in Jaffa'. ArchNet Digital Library. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011.
80. ^'History of Jaffa', ArtMag, Université Européenne de la Recherche, retrieved 18 December 2012
81. ^'Sabil Abu Nabbut'. ArchNet Digital Library. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.
82. ^'Archaeology News in Israel'. Biblical Productions. 2008. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
83. ^HaTachana official website

Bibliography[edit]

• Barron, J. B., ed. (1923). [://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922 Palestine: Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922] Check url= value (help). Government of Palestine.
• Chelouche, Y.E. (2005). Arashat Hayai: 1870–1930 (English: Reminiscences of My Life: 1870–1930) (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv: Babel. ISBN965-512-096-1. OCLC62317894.
• Department of Statistics (1945). Village Statistics, April, 1945. Government of Palestine.
• Hadawi, S. (1970). Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine. Palestine Liberation Organization Research Center.
• Hütteroth, Wolf-Dieter; Abdulfattah, Kamal (1977). Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjordan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Century. Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany: Vorstand der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft. ISBN3-920405-41-2.
• Lebor, Adam (2007). City of Oranges. Arabs and Jews in Jaffa. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN0-7475-8602-0.
• Levine, Mark (2005). Overthrowing Geography, Jaffa, Tel Aviv, and the Struggle for Palestine, 1880–1948. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-23994-6.
• Le Strange, G. (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. London: Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. OCLC1004386.
• Mills, E., ed. (1932). Census of Palestine 1931. Population of Villages, Towns and Administrative Areas. Jerusalem: Government of Palestine.
• Morris, B. (1987). The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-33028-9.
• Petersen, Andrew (2001). A Gazetteer of Buildings in Muslim Palestine (British Academy Monographs in Archaeology). I. Oxford University Press. pp. 161−175. ISBN978-0-19-727011-0.
• Šārôn Rôṭbard, Šārôn (2005). ʻÎr levānā, ʻîr šeḥôrā (English: White City, Black City) (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv: Babel. ISBN978-965-512-096-7. OCLC260080254.
• Segev, T. (1998). 1949, the First Israelis. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN0-8050-5896-6.
• Thomson, W.M. (1859). The Land and the Book: Or, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land. 2 (1 ed.). New York: Harper & brothers.
• Weill-Rochant, Catherine (2008). L'atlas de Tel Aviv : 1908–2008 (in French). Paris: CNRS Éditions. ISBN2-271-06658-1.
• Yahav, Dan (2004). Yafo, kalat ha-yam : me-ʻir roshah li-shekhunot ʻoni, degem le-i-shiṿyon merḥavi (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv: Tamouz. OCLC59707598.
• Yavin, Shmuel (2006). Bauhaus in Jaffa: Modern Architecture in an Ancient City. Tel Aviv: Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv. ISBN965-90606-2-9.

External links[edit]

• Jaffa in 1880, SWP Map 13: IAA, Wikimedia commons Coordinates: East longitude, 34.45; North latitude, 32.3
• The Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project
• Jaffa Old City Photos in Cafetorah.com, archived from the original on 4 March 2016
• Telaviv-Jaffa in Cafetorah.com, archived from the original on 28 March 2015
• Neff, Donald (April – May 1994). 'Arab Jaffa seized before Israel's creation in 1948'. Washington Report on Middle East Affairs: 75.
• 'JAFFA (Hebr. Yafo; A. V. Joppa; Greek, Joppe; Arabic, Yaffa)'. Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906.
• Schaalje, Jacqueline (May 2001). 'Jaffa'. The Jewish Magazine.
• The Old City of Yafo (Travel photos of Old Jaffa and its port), Common Ground
• 'Jaffa'. World Cities Images. Archived from the original on 8 January 2009.
• 'Tel Aviv Virtual Tours – Clock Square Jaffa'. 3Disrael.com. (no plugin needed)
• 'Jaffa Old Harbour (photo gallery)'. tel aviv 4 fun.
• Plan of Jaffa, 1:6,000, 1918. Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel.

Coordinates: 32°03′08″N34°45′11″E / 32.05222°N 34.75306°E